Virtual workshop. Textbook under the general editorship of d e

INNOVATIVE

theory and practice

Edition 2, revised and enlarged

Edited by Doctor of Economics, Professor L.K. Kazantsev,

Doctor of Economics, Professor L. E. Mindeli

Approved by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions students in the direction 521 500 "Management", specialty 061100 "Management of the organization"

ECONOMIZDAT www.economizdat.ru

UDC 65.01:001.895(075.8) BBK65.290-2ya73

Edited by

D.E.N., prof. A. K. Kazantseva, Doctor of Economics prof. L. E. MINDELI

A u t u r c o ll e c t i o n :

L.S. Baryutin, D.E. and. prof. (ch. 10); S.5. Valdaitsev, Ph.D. and. prof. (5.2; 5.3; 12.4); A.V. Vasiliev, Ph.D. and, Assoc. (11.3);P.N. Zavlin, Doctor of Economics prof. (ch. 1; 8; 11.1; 11.2); B.C. Kabakov, D.E. Ph.D. prof. (4; 14); A.K. Kazantsev, D.E. and. prof. (Ch. 2; 7; 13); L.E. Mindeli, D.E. and. prof. (Ch. 3; 5.1); I.S. Minco; e. and. prof. (ch. 9);

K.F. Bubble, d.e. n. prof. (Ch. 6); L.S. Serov, Ph.D. n, Assoc. (ch. 12).

FOREWORD

The last decade of the XX century. for Russia became a period of radical social and economic reforms, large-scale political and institutional reforms taking place against the backdrop of a protracted systemic crisis.

However economic results Russia at the turn of the century surpassed the wildest expectations and gave rise to optimistic hopes for the near future. The period from 1999 to 2003 is characterized by positive dynamics of the main macroeconomic indicators-- index industrial production, gross domestic product, foreign trade turnover, the volume of investments in fixed capital, etc. Long awaited economic success contributed to the appearance of the illusion of the beginning of a period of sustainable economic growth and automatic resolution on this basis of existing acute problems in the scientific and innovative complex of the country.

In reality, sustainable economic and scientific-innovative development cannot arise spontaneously. It requires the existence and successful functioning of a growth mechanism adequate to the situation, providing for the creation of the necessary economic, financial, organizational and legal conditions. Many of them are either absent or not used for various reasons in real practice.

First, you need to create methodological foundations and real practice in the formation and implementation of an effective state innovation policy at the federal and regional levels. In conditions of severely limited resources available to the state for the preservation and development of scientific and technological<1ческого потенциала, важнейшей задачей становится концентрация их на ограниченном числе приоритетных направ­ лений развития науки и техники. Необходим объективный и достаточно прозрачный механизм выбора приоритетов и селективной поддержки на их основе конкретных научных направлений, программ, проектов, отраслей науки и отдельных научных учреждений. Селективный, избирательный под­ ход должен очевидно стать в ближайшей перспективе основным инструмен­ том стратегического планирования развития инновационной сферы.

Secondly, powerful and diverse instruments of financial support for innovation activity are needed. The financial mechanism should harmoniously combine budgetary and commercial sources, directly

direct and indirect forms of stimulation of scientific and innovative activity in order to create a favorable innovation climate.

Thirdly, in accordance with the new legislation, it is required to create specific tools for managing intellectual property in science and innovation. The new patent and licensing legislation only created the basis for the legal protection of intellectual property, but did not develop effective tools for its economic management, objective assessment and commercial use of significant intangible assets of organizations and scientific institutions.

Fourthly, it is necessary to develop forms of a harmonious combination of national interests in scientific and innovative development with international differentiation, specialization and segmentation of science-intensive technology markets. Excessively active integration of a weakened national science into the world community under the influence of the developing processes of globalization can lead it to a peripheral positioning and not give the expected development.

Fifth, it is required to form a subject of scientific and innovative development, covering the whole variety of areas of science, types of scientific and innovative activities, stages of the process of creating and transferring modern technologies. The subject of scientific and innovative activity in the form of a structured network of scientific and innovative organizations must have rational proportions and a developed infrastructure. Its strategic interests and institutional position must be linked to national strategic interests.

The listed aspects are constituent elements of the integrated national innovation system being created in the country. Management of its functioning and development is the content of innovation management.

Innovation management- This is a field of economic science and practice that studies the control systems for the processes of creating and distributing innovations in all areas of purposeful human activity.

The study of the theoretical foundations and practical methods of innovation management is the content of a special academic discipline, provided for by the curricula of most economic specialties. Knowledge of the basics of innovation management is equally necessary for specialists involved in scientific research, developers of new technology, managers and financial and economic workers in various business areas.

The subject of innovation management are the principles and methods of managing the innovation activities of individual organizations and their associations related to:

creation of new consumer values;

development of their production;

distribution and use;

introduction into economic circulation and commercialization.

The tasks of studying the discipline are:

studying the theoretical foundations of innovation management

Tew organizations; familiarity with practical methods of making strategic, tactful

cal and operational decisions in the field of management of innovative activity of organizations;

acquiring the skills to apply various techniques and means of decision making in the field of innovation management.

The second edition of the book offered to the reader systematizes the theoretical and methodological experience accumulated in domestic and foreign practice of innovation management. Economists from Moscow and St. Petersburg, who have devoted many years to studying the economic problems of scientific and technological progress and innovation, took part in the work. The book reveals the basic concepts and categories of modern innovation, examines the features of large-scale innovation processes in the country's economy, outlines the main provisions of the modern concept of innovation management, and generalizes the practice of formation and development of the Russian national innovation system.

The structure of the work provides for a detailed study of the content of innovation processes in the country's economy (Chapter 1), the methodological foundations for building management in the innovation sphere (Chapter 2) and the principles of state regulation of innovation processes (Chapter 3). Chapters 4-10 focus on practical methods for the strategic management of innovation, methods of innovation marketing, organization, planning and financing of innovations. A significant place in the work is given to the presentation of methods for evaluating the effectiveness of individual innovative projects and innovative activities of organizations. Chapters 12-14 are devoted to the consideration of specific aspects of the economy and management of innovative projects, entrepreneurship, as well as the legal support of innovative activities.

The publication is aimed at a wide range of specialists involved in the innovation field, as well as undergraduate and graduate students studying economics and management.

Chapter 1

INNOVATIONS IN THE MARKET ECONOMY

1.1. Basic definitions

1.1.1. Innovation

The word "innovation" is synonymous with innovation, or innovation, and can be used along with them (see English terminological dictionaries). There are several approaches to defining the essence of innovation in the literature. Two points of view are most common: in one case, an innovation is presented as the result of a creative process in the form of a new product (technique), technology, method, etc.; in the other - as a process of introducing new products, elements, approaches, principles instead of the existing ones. We are more impressed by the definition of innovation as the result of a creative process in the form of created (or implemented) new consumer values, the use of which requires the individuals or organizations using them to change the usual stereotypes of activities and skills. At the same time, the most important sign of innovation in a market economy should be the novelty of its consumer properties. Technical innovation plays a secondary role. Thus, the concept of innovation extends to a new product or service, a method of their production, an innovation in organizational, financial, research and other areas, any improvement that provides cost savings or creates conditions for such savings.

Innovation arises as a result of using the results of scientific research and development aimed at improving the process of production activity, economic, legal and social relations in the field of science, culture, education, and in other areas of society. This term can have different meanings in different contexts, depending on the specific purpose of the measurement or analysis.

Innovation is the end result of innovative activity that has been implemented in the form of a new or improved product sold on the market, a new or improved technological process used in practice [I]. Thus, the end result of innovation is commercial success.

The methodology for a systematic description of innovations in a market economy is based on international standards, recommendations on which were adopted in Oslo in 1992, hence the name - "Oslo Guide". They are designed for technological innovation and cover new products and processes as well as their significant technological changes. An innovation is considered implemented if it is implemented in the market or in the production process. Accordingly, two types of technological innovations are distinguished: product and process.

Product innovation cover the introduction of new or improved products (see 1.2.3).

Process innovation- this is the development of new or significantly improved products, the organization of production. The release of such products is not possible using the existing equipment or the applied production methods.

It should be noted the differences between the American and Japanese systems of innovation:

in USA Va of all innovations refers to process innovations, and 2/s to product innovations; in Japan it's the opposite.

The classification of innovations is discussed in more detail in 1.2.1. All existing definitions can be classified according to five main approaches: 1) object (in the domestic literature in this case

in the term “innovation” often acts as a defined term); 2) process; 3) object-utilitarian; 4) process-utilitarian; 5) process-financial.

Essence object approach lies in the fact that the innovation is an object - the result of scientific and technical progress: a new technique, technology. There are basic innovations that implement major inventions and become the basis for the formation of new generations and areas of technology; improving innovations, usually implementing small and medium-sized inventions and prevailing in the phases of distribution and stable development of the scientific and technical cycle; pseudo-innovations(rationalizing innovations) aimed at partial improvement of obsolete generations of equipment and technologies and usually hindering technical progress (they either do not produce an effect for society or bring a negative effect).

The introduction of a new product is defined as basic product innovation, when it comes to a product, the possible scope of which, as well as the functional characteristics, properties, construction or used materials and components, significantly distinguish it from previously produced products. Such innovations are aimed at developing new generations of machines and materials and are based on fundamentally new technologies or on a combination of existing technologies in their new application. An example of basic innovations (fundamentally new) can be, for example, the replacement of indicators based on light-emitting diodes with indicators on liquid crystals or a steam engine with an internal combustion engine.

Improving Innovation affect an already existing product, the quality or cost characteristics of which have been noticeably improved through the use of more efficient components and materials, a partial change in one or a number of technical subsystems (in the case of a complex product). These innovations serve to disseminate and improve the mastered generations of equipment (technology), create new models of machines and varieties of materials, improve the parameters of goods (services) and their production technologies. Increasing the efficiency of an internal combustion engine or switching from reel to reel to cassette recorders are examples of improving innovation. In both cases, none of these finished products had been produced before.

Thus, the radical nature of an innovation determines the degree of effort to implement it. Behind this division are two different innovation processes: pioneering and catching up. Pioneer type means a line to achieve the world championship (for example, the USA). Catching up is cheaper and can give a quick result (for example, Japan). This is expressed in a large number of patents developed in the US, and licenses acquired in Japan. At the same time, Japan has a very high coefficient of inventive activity (the number of national patent applications per 10,000 people) - 28.3 versus 4.9 in the USA (in Russia - 1.13). In Russia in 2001 compared to 2000, the number of patent applications filed increased by 16%, but the number of issued patents decreased by 10%.

Within process approach innovation is understood as a complex process that includes the development, introduction into production and commercialization of new consumer values ​​- goods, equipment, technology, organizational forms, etc.

Object Utility approach to the definition of the term "innovation" is characterized by two main points. First, an object is understood as an innovation - a new use value based on the achievements of science and technology. Secondly, the emphasis is on the utilitarian side of the innovation - the ability to satisfy social needs with a great beneficial effect. In contrast to the object utility process-utilitarian approach to the definition of the term "innovation" is that in this case, innovation is presented as a complex process of creating, distributing and using a new practical tool.

Within process financial approach, innovation is understood as the process of investing in innovations, investing in the development of new equipment, technologies, and scientific research.

In all the above definitions, the term "innovation" is interpreted in relation to a specific formal situation. These approaches do not reveal the economic essence of innovation, there are no clear criteria for defining innovation from the standpoint of its economic results. As a result, any innovation, including a less progressive, inefficient new introduction, can be interpreted as an innovation. For deeper insight

the concept of "innovation" should use a systematic approach from the standpoint of goal setting and development. Based on the analysis by 14 authors of the essence of the concept of "innovation", a generalizing definition of it is given as "the process of implementing a new idea in any sphere of human life and activity, contributing to the satisfaction of the existing need in the market and bringing an economic effect" .

The specificity of innovation as a commodity is determined by a high degree of uncertainty in obtaining a scientific and technical result, a special nature of financing, i.e. the risk of a time gap between costs and results, the uncertainty of demand. Due to the uncertainty of demand for innovations, their supply usually plays an active, proactive role.

Incentives for innovation are subdivided into innovative enterprise(IP) on internal and external. An internal incentive for innovation activity is the need to replace obsolete equipment in order to increase the competitiveness of IP products in the market. With the underdevelopment of market relations, especially in the context of the economic crisis, the decisive incentives for innovation are external incentives, determined by the economic policy of the state.

The transition of the world economy to a new stage of scientific and technological development required an increase in innovative activity and a new approach to innovations that combine knowledge and technology with the market. 90s of XX century introduced new trends in the process of interaction between the economic environment and the innovative activity of competing independent economic entities, forced to largely change the stereotypes of their behavior in this area.

It is innovations that become the main "actor" of theoretical scenarios and practical implementation of the modern scientific and technological revolution, somewhat pushing aside investments that have dominated for many years as the main factor in economic growth. Until now, in the theories, as a rule, of Russian economists concerning expanded reproduction, an increase in the volume of capital investments is considered as the main condition for scientific and technical progress and economic development in general. This is not surprising: the nature of reproduction in our country continues to bear obvious features of extensive development, but the main thing is that there has never been a place for the market in these theoretical constructions. However, the fundamental increase in the role of innovations is caused primarily by a change in the market situation: the nature of competition, the transition from the usual static to dynamic competition. This circumstance largely determined the features of the interaction between innovations and the market at the present stage.

An innovation is a commodity that cannot be directly touched and physically measured: it cannot be used without a certain minimum of scientific knowledge (especially mathematical), professional competence and the necessary awareness; him without

Virtual Workshop: The Search for Effective Institutions for Russia in the 21st Century has been in existence since 1999. This project united the efforts of scientists - economists and sociologists from the cities of Russia and neighboring countries Astana, Biysk, Donetsk, Kyiv, Dnepropetrovsk, Yekaterinburg, Kazan, Karaganda, Kemerovo, Krasnodar, Minsk, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Novosibirsk, Rostov-on-Don, St. Petersburg, Ulaanbaatar, Ulan-Ude, Ulyanovsk, Kharkov, Cherkasy, etc.

The head of the center is an ordinary professor of the State University-Higher School of Economics R.M. Nureev, key researchers S.B. Avdasheva, A.V. Alekseev, S.Yu. Barsukova, V.V. Volchik, V.V. Dementiev, S.G. Kirdina, Yu.V. Latov, S.N. Levin, G.P. Litvintseva, M.Yu. Malkina, A.N. Oleinik, I.V. Rozmainsky, T.Yu. Sidorina, S.G. Shulgin.

The Virtual Workshop regularly holds Internet conferences on the federal portal "Economics, Sociology, Management" (http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/forums.html), based on which a number of monographs have been published. In 2001, the monograph “Economic Subjects of Post-Soviet Russia (Institutional Analysis)” was published (http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/db/msg/47998.html), and in 2003 its updated edition in 3 volumes was published (http://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/db/msg/47998.html). ://www.ecsocman.edu.ru/db/msg/47998.html). Since 2006, the SU-HSE has been publishing the series “Economic Theory: Traditions and Modernity”. As part of it, the monographs “The Great Transformation of Karl Polanyi: Past, Present, Future” and “Social Market Economy: Concepts, Practical Experience and Prospects for Application in Modern Russia” were published.

The development of the virtual workshop led to the creation of the International Association for Institutional Studies (IAIS), which since 2006 has been publishing the yearbook "Post-Soviet Institutionalism", and since 2009 the journal "Institutional Studies" (http://www.instud.org). A conference of members of the society is held annually, and regional conferences are held several times a year (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Donetsk, Kemerovo, Rostov-on-Don, Sochi, etc.).

Main area of ​​research: institutional analysis of economic subjects of post-Soviet Russia, theory and practice of public choice, shadow economy, problems of power and property, history of institutionalism. Many of them lie at the intersection of economics, sociology, and political science.

In 2010, a three-volume monograph “Economic Subjects of Post-Soviet Russia (Institutional Analysis)” was published. 10 years later”, which sums up the institutional development of Russia over the past decade http://www.mpsf.org/.

The monograph is based on the results of the 10-year work of the virtual workshop "Search for Effective Institutions for Russia in the 21st Century". The monograph is devoted to the institutional analysis of the three main economic entities of post-Soviet Russia: households, firms and the state. The eras of Yeltsin and Putin are compared and their unity and differences are shown.

The main attention is paid to the analysis of the new institutional space, the mechanisms of households getting used to the market, the ways of becoming an effective worker-partner, and the factors hindering the accumulation of human capital.

The problems of the formation of the middle class and institutions of civil society in Russia are also studied.

Reviewers:

M. A. Davtyan, Ph.D. n, prof. laureate of the RF Government Prize in the field of education;

I. I. Stolyarov, Doctor of Economics, Professor, Lomonosov Moscow State University M. V. Lomonosov

I. N. Albin, Ph.D., prof.; D. V. Gross, Doctor of Economics, Prof.; M. D. Gross, Doctor of Economics, Prof.; T. D. Gross, Doctor of Economics, Prof.; N. N. Gritsenko, Doctor of Economics, Prof.; V. T. Ivanov, Ph.D., prof.; N. N. Kuzmina, Ph.D.; L. E. Slutsky, Doctor of Economics, Prof.; M. M. Tazhin, Doctor of Sociology, Prof.; Yu. V. Yakutia, Doctor of Economics, prof.

There is a widespread opinion that theory is the lot of scientists and leaders. One involuntarily recalls the words of Mr. Jourdain from Molière's comedy "The Philistine in the Nobility": "Honestly, I had no idea that for more than forty years I have been speaking prose ...". Many citizens are constantly engaged in theory, but they do not know about it, just as people have been using the law of gravity for thousands of years without having any idea of ​​its existence. For example, you decide to buy a house or exchange an apartment. Where will you start? From studying the issue and analyzing it in many ways - price, area, transport routes, ecology, and so on. High school graduates face a problem: where to go to study further? A thousand and one questions arise: is the university paid or free, is there a hostel, what are the remoteness, prestige and specialties of the university, employment prospects. And again a serious theoretical study of the problems begins, and only after that a practical decision is made.

Theory(from Greek. theory- observation, research) is a "mental cast" of generalized knowledge about some phenomenon, process or object. By observing the movement of the planets, people theoretically determined their characteristics and routes of movement. The theoretical discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Tsiolkovsky and others substantiated the possibility of practical space exploration. The pinnacle of science in the 20th century. is the launch in 1957 of the first artificial satellite of the Earth, and in 1961, the flight of a man into space - Yuri Gagarin. The practical verification of many theoretical conclusions about space created the conditions for flights to other planets.

The brilliant theorist D. I. Mendeleev convincingly proved: “Theory is the soul, and practice (experience) is the body of science. Without a theory, it is easy to get lost in the ocean of thoughts and in the forest of facts.” This applies to all spheres of human activity, but especially to the economy, where both horizontal and vertical relations are intertwined related to the production, distribution and consumption of material goods.

The science is a method, a way of studying, researching entities any object, process, phenomenon. Marx once noted: "If the form of manifestation and the essence of things directly coincided, then any science would be superfluous." Outwardly, it seems that the Sun revolves around the Earth. And how many centuries and human sacrifices it took to prove the opposite. For more than one and a half millennia, the dogma that all wealth was created by God dominated. Dissidents were sent to the stake. After overcoming medieval religious fanaticism for more than three centuries, there was a search for an answer to the question: if wealth is not created by God, then where does it come from?

In nature and society there are objective laws that express the essence of things and phenomena. The discovery, knowledge and determination of the mechanism for the conscious use of these laws in practice is the goal of science. Penetrating into the essence of the phenomena of nature and society, people reveal the operation of certain laws. Why, for example, does night give way to day, summer to autumn, winter to spring? For many centuries it was believed that such a change occurs at the will of the Lord God. But, when the legend of the divine structure of the universe was dispelled, the mystery of the change of night during the day, and summer in the fall disappeared. Now people not only know why it happens, but with mathematical precision, down to fractions of a second, they determine the time of such a change and consciously take this into account in their behavior. When this phenomenon of nature was not yet scientifically known, people adapted to it spontaneously. They worked during the day and rested at night; in the summer they prepared food for the winter, and in the winter they prepared for spring and summer work. Until the apple fell on Newton's brilliant head, people took into account the law of gravity subconsciously. They were always careful not to let any object fall on top of their heads. Was it really possible to go into space without measuring and knowing the essence of this law?

In a similar way, theory reveals the essence of phenomena and processes in economic life. Remember how many theories have been put forward in search of an answer to the question: if wealth is not given by God, then where does it come from? Many economic theories do not stand the test of practice and time. But there are such theories and laws that were once scientifically substantiated, but in the changed conditions they no longer correspond to the economic relations existing between people and their interests.

In this regard, A. Smith's theory of self-regulation of the economy ("lasser faire") is very characteristic. When there were tens and hundreds of thousands of small commodity producers and free competition, and there was no trace of monopolies, the spontaneous regulation of production was the only possible one. However, under the conditions of monopolization, the possibility and effectiveness of such regulation has decreased to a critical level. Here is how J. M. Keynes put it: “I rely on the state: I leave the point of view of lasser faire without enthusiasm and not because I feel disrespect for this good old doctrine, but because - whether we like it or not - the times of its success passed."