In particular, jobs must be designed in such a way as to suit both the abilities of the people in the positions and their motivations. Therefore, industrial psychologists tend to choose one of two fundamentals. approaches to the design of labor activity. The first approach is motivational. Recently, in the field of motivation, great importance has been attached to changing jobs so that they allow employees to better control the results of their work, increase autonomy, improve feedback and make it possible to get carried away with their work. Such a so-called. underlies an area of activity called job content enrichment ( job enrichment).
The second approach is focused on individual abilities and is reduced to designing work tasks in different types professional activity so that they correspond as closely as possible to the abilities of the people involved in these activities. This area is called human engineering. factors, or ergonomics. An applied discipline called "human factors" has been heavily influenced by research. people's ability to process information and capabilities of technical devices with t. sp. interactions between people and computers, as well as technical advances in robotics.
see also The study of the opinions and attitudes of personnel to working conditions, Human factors, Occupational analysis, Morale in organizations, Personnel assessment
D. R. Ilgen
Industrial Clinical Psychologist ( occupational clinical psychologist)
Psychological specialist. adapt. of people in the workplace, it is a psychologist who, acting as an external consultant or in-house specialist, addresses the well-being of workers and organizations through programs and services provided at the expense of a sponsor such as an employer or trade union.
P. k. p., as a rule, has a doctoral degree obtained as a result of the implementation of an accredited program, the necessary experience of pract. work with the employed population under the guidance of an experienced specialist in mental health problems. health facility, and meets licensing requirements under state law. Qualified in the application of psychol. principles in dealing with mental health problems. the health of both employees and employers, this psychologist was trained in diagnostic and assessment methods; methods of counseling and psychotherapy, especially its short forms; crisis intervention; work with stress; management and organizational consulting; methods of strengthening labor discipline, as well as developed. and evaluation acc. programs. Such professionals must have knowledge of federal, state, and municipal regulations, testing, and immunity laws privacy, as well as sections of legislation relating to the labor of women, ethnic minorities and the elderly.
see also Industrial Consultants, Industrial Clinical Psychology
X. W. Schmitz
propaganda ( propaganda)
P. is the promotion of a position or idea in a manner that reflects an attempt to impose rather than give a balanced general idea about it. P. can be opposed to education, the purpose of which is the transfer of knowledge.
The first attempt at a systematic analysis of P. during the war was made by G. D. Lasswell. He examined the success of each of the belligerents in achieving four goals: a) demoralization of the enemy; b) increased hatred for the enemy; c) maintaining friendly relations with neutral states; and d) the possibility of achieving cooperation with neutral states.
In other countries, the term "P." was used quite openly and without an accompanying negative appraisal connotation. So, the infamous J. Goebbels was the Reich Minister of Public Education and P. in Nazi Germany. The United States used to call its agencies, which performed similar functions, "information" agencies and "communications" agencies. In the United States, the term P. has taken on a negative evaluative connotation since the 1930s, when it became associated with the efforts of Germany and Italy to achieve a favorable attitude towards the new political structure their states.
In military P., which aims to undermine the morale of the enemy, the goal is a potentially vacillating person, who still continues to fight, but has already lost his fighting enthusiasm. It is unrealistic to expect such people to drop their weapons and surrender on the basis of P. alone, but they can be nudged into allowing themselves to be captured with resp. set of circumstances.
One of the ways to study P. includes the analysis of appeals to fear in the process of persuasion. The studied dependent variables were such consequences as the intention to use seat belts and to receive correspondingly. injections to prevent disease. Despite the lack of complete agreement in the results, a general trend has been established towards a positive relationship between the intensity of fear motivation and the degree of change in attitude as a result of P.
It is possible that susceptibility to influence or persuasion by means of P. and other persuasive communications belongs to the class of common features, however, research. this theme has led to only modest success in identifying its correlates. P. turns out to be most effective in working with people who are already favorably disposed towards the views she promotes. If they are not in a favorable mood, they may avoid its influence (not listening to broadcasts, not paying attention to posters, etc.). If they are not in a favorable mood, but still exposed to it, they may not perceive this message, not relating it to themselves or distorting its semantic structure. For this reason, advocacy efforts can begin by preparing audiences in advance to accept and accept the message. This process involves appeals to the importance of the issue at hand.
Marketing of goods or services, public relations and advertising are one of the forms of P., since they are often interested not in bringing the whole truth to consumers, but in selective dosing of information. to stimulate sales growth.
see also Attitudes, Communication theory, Persuasive communications, Social influence
Ch. Vinick
prosocial behavior ( prosocial behavior)
P. p. consists of reactions, to-rye do not entail obvious benefits for the respondent, but are beneficial to the recipient. Both internal and external mechanisms have been proposed as hypothetical determinants of P. p. As individuals mature and develop, they improve their understanding, better anticipate the consequences of their actions and deeds, and learn to navigate and act on the basis of general moral principles. With an emphasis on external factors, the attention of researchers focused on the situational determinants of P. p. theoret. approach to understanding P. p. emphasized the importance of the situation or environment: attempts to explain, based on the theory of reinforcement, why people sometimes help others, and cognitive analysis of the way perceptions and value judgments influence behavior. With t. sp. Some representatives of the theory of learning, prosocial reactions arise because they were rewarded in the past. Along with past experiences, individuals are also influenced by their expectations of future rewards or punishments.
It has been found that the factors influencing P. p. include such external determinants as the presence of bystanders. The presence of more than one witness in emergency leads to inhibition of reactions from every person present. Such suppression by the witness of his reactions, apparently, is a consequence of the uncertainty of the attitude of those present to the situation itself. People react less when circumstances are uncertain, when they find themselves in unfamiliar surroundings, and when they experience uncertainty about behavioral norms in a particular environment.
Internal factors that affect P. p. include variables such as the mood of the person. The likelihood of helping behavior increases when individuals are in a good mood. P. p. tzh varies as a function of the relative balance of perceived costs and rewards.
see also Altruism, Intervention of bystanders, Collaboration/competition, Development of human social behavior, Social climate research
C. G. Huber
Professional analysis ( job analysis)
Developed research and psychology. programs in organizations often require knowledge of various aspects of the work performed by people. The process by which this knowledge is acquired, called. P. a., while the report on the results of such an analysis is called. professiogram ( job description). Sometimes these terms are used interchangeably.
The work is analyzed primarily in order to answer two types of questions: a) what operations are performed in the process of work; b) what resources are needed for this. Answers to the first question may describe the results of the work or labor achievements, tasks or responsibilities, work methods and procedures, and other work-related activities that are typical for all people doing this work. A comprehensive study of the work can also give information. about the diverse deviations in the implementation of the recommended procedures or about the possible, but usually not taken into account or even undesirable consequences of c.-l. production actions. Answers to the second question can describe physical. resources (e.g. tools, equipment or materials), social or organizational resources (e.g. relationships between managers or colleagues and personnel work) or personal resources employee (e.g. skills, knowledge, abilities or other personal characteristics necessary for the effective performance of work).
Professiograms serve as the basis for many others. types of research. and planning practical programs. Examples of their use can be found in work design ( job design), developer vocational training programs, vocational counseling, evaluation of the employee's work and determination of professional knowledge and skills, or Ph.D. more abstract constructs evaluated in the selection of personnel.
There are many different methods of P. a., but most of them can be attributed to five categories.
Self-reports. Main - often the only source of information. about work yav-Xia full-time performer; some professiograms are nothing more than a report of the performer, main. partly on an introspective look at what he has to do.
direct observation. Some types of work can be studied by observing how staff performers perform their work. In this case, such auxiliary means as video cameras or stopwatches can be used, and the observations themselves can be carried out according to a predetermined time schedule. This method is informative for those types of work, to-rye consist of easily observed physical. operations and short work cycles, but it is not very suitable for jobs that have advantages. cognitive character.
Documentation research. Police reports contain messages about incidents recorded by them (accidents, accidents, etc.). Complaint logs can contain useful information. about the work of both law enforcement officers and representatives of other professions related to the provision of various kinds of services. Memos may report some unusual, but important events and achievements. Honey. reports may indicate sources of danger to human health and life in the working environment or in working methods. There may be previously compiled Professiograms.
Interview. Staff performers, their supervisors, and other workers with related functions may be interviewed individually or in groups in order to determine broad categories of job characteristics and specific details within these categories. An interview in the early stages of the analysis might. open and unstructured; if the analysis covers several various kinds work may be required standardized forms interview.
J. Flanagan dev. a special approach, which has proven itself well in groups. interview. Workers or other people may be asked to identify and describe critical cases - examples of particularly effective or inefficient performance of work. This description includes the chain of events leading up to the critical event and its consequences. By analyzing a set of critical cases, you can learn a lot about the sources of danger, about the factors that influence people's judgment, or about personal characteristics related to the quality of work performed. This technique is especially good for those types of work where many. important aspects of professional activity are hidden from outside observers.
Questioning methods. When you need to analyze many types of work, or when people who have the same profession perform various options main work, you can use questionnaires or questionnaires in order to collect information usually obtained through other methods. Developed the questionnaire may require observations or interviews; if it is intended for wide and frequent use, it is often tested on a small sample before conducting full-scale surveys and refined as necessary.
see also Applied Research, Industrial psychology, Evaluation of the work of an employee to establish wages
R. M. Guyon
Professional adaptation ( occupational adjustment)
P. a. - a complex and lengthy process, to-ry begins from the time of entry into labor activity and continues throughout life. Appl. psychologists study the motivation and needs of an employee in connection with job satisfaction and investigate the influence of various individual and organizational characteristics on his work activity.
P.'s theories and. For an explanation of P.'s process and. a number of theories have been put forward. The theorist in the field of professional development, D. Super, and his colleagues identify 3 stages in the process of P. a. (definition, maintenance and decline). Super described the tasks of development, which are solved by the individual at each of the stages. Main the task of the initial phase, or the career definition phase, is to realize professional preferences and realize the need to achieve stability in a professional career. In the next phase, the individual either actually acquires a permanent job, or is forced to put up with more or less permanent instability. Finally, the individual consolidates and progresses in the chosen professional career. Dr. the stages were proposed by Miller and Form (trial period, stable period, and retirement period) and R. Havighurst (becoming, maintaining and thinking [review]).
Problems or styles of adaptation to work were also studied. Neff identified 5 types of disorders, or pathologies of labor adaptation, including low work motivation, fear or anxiety in response to the requirements for work productivity, hostility and aggression, dependence and social. naivety. Finally, Holland and Shane showed how the interaction of individual traits and environmental characteristics cause P. a. and professional growth.
A thorough and empirically substantiated theory of P. a. was expounded by Lofquist and Davis in their Adaptation to Work ( Adjustment to work). According to this theory, the professional environment develops a variety of reinforcement patterns that interact with the needs and abilities of the individual. Conformity or harmony between the individual and his work environment will lead to contentment and satisfaction and, as a result, to a certain level of permanence or work stability. Satisfaction and satisfaction are complementary results of adaptation to work.
Thus, individual and environmental factors contribute to adaptation to work. In accordance with this theory, psychol. questionnaires to measure individual needs (Minnesota Importance Inventory, Minnesota Importance Questionnaire[MIQ]) and describe patterns of occupational reinforcers for various occupations.
Warr and Wall talk about the existence of a close relationship between the general mental. health and fitness for work. These authors agree that the satisfaction of individual work needs is essential for self-esteem and, therefore, for overall health. In general, the results of research. confirm existence of communication between the general and P. and. Krayts draws attention to the fact that this connection is complex and, apparently, depends on individual and organizational mediating variables.
Interventions to facilitate professional adaptation. In the industry, therapeutic and preventive programs were used to promote P. a. and psychic. health of employees, including, among other things, improvements in selection and training procedures. In research. it was found that a balanced (positive and negative) inform. about the upcoming job provided to the candidate led to more realistic expectations and reduced the number of layoffs.
Dr. the programs were designed to train managers to lead more effectively in the development of employees' professional careers. In addition, the organization of counseling centers and centers to assist workers has become increasingly popular in business, industry and government. institutions. These and other programs similar to them increase the ability of the worker and the organization to cope with the problems of P. a.
see also Professional career development, Industrial psychology, Job satisfaction
A. R. Spokane
Vocational rehabilitation ( vocational rehabilitation)
According to Richard Burke, the first Ordinance on P. r. (State Law 236) in the United States was passed by Congress on June 2, 1920. This resolution placed special emphasis on the professions and defined rehabilitation as "efforts aimed at making a disabled person capable of engaging in paid professional activities."
Theoretically, P.'s program r. should be addressed to people with limited legal capacity, giving them a choice. It should be different from similar activities, the purpose of which is primary education, such as career guidance, vocational training and advanced training. However, in practice, pl. persons with disabilities choose from available resources to meet their personal needs, often without taking into account any such official definitions, no expert advice.
Individual practice distorts statistical trends and deprives the accuracy of the definition. However, there are certain reasons behind it. It reflects practice. considerations. Pers. may prefer one program to another due to the proximity of the place of study. Dr. cause m. a sense of shame associated with P. p. and incapacity, which forced people. to pass it. Olshansky suggests that a disabled person often suffers from a sense of shame not in any one of its forms, but from its many varieties associated with external physical. shortcomings, stereotypical ideas about people receiving social services. help, and even with attitudes about race, color, or religious beliefs. While the achievements of medicine and science continue to increase life expectancy, the need for P. will grow more and more.
S. Berent
Professional ethics (professional ethics)
Ethics is a set of norms that govern personal and professional behavior and development. in most cases for protection of consumers of services, experts, org-tions, participants issled., professional groups and about-va as a whole.
You can organize ethical standards around people. or a group, in relation to which the responsibility of a specialist arises, or around a broad classification. principles. In any case, norms tend to be more general guidelines for making decisions about ethical action, both before and after they take place, than a set of rules for all possible professional situations. When ethical norms are developed by professional org-tions, then following these norms becomes one of the conditions for belonging to these org-tions. In such cases, the norms become the basis for formal consideration of alleged unethical behavior.
Systems of ethical principles osn. on the goals, objectives and fundamental values of specific professions. Not as weighty as civil or criminal law, they can still serve as a guiding line for developers. legislation or to determine in civil proceedings whether accepted norms of practice have been violated. Ethical principles are usually reviewed periodically, reflecting the development of the profession, changes in the norms of society as a whole, or the results of court decisions.
The first area - "responsibility" - draws Special attention to the fact that psychologists must be extremely sensitive to the potential end results of their professional actions.
The principle of "competence" emphasizes that psychologists should engage in professional activities only in those areas in which they undoubtedly have knowledge, skills, training and experience.
The principle of "moral and legal norms" requires psychologists to know the norms of behavior that exist in the community and use this information. at the development own systems of personal and professional values and behavior.
The principle that governs "self-presentation" determines the way in which an organization or a specialist provides information about their professional qualifications, participation in professional communities and their functions.
The principle of "confidentiality" is integral part effective psychol. practices. Information provided to a psychologist in the context of a professional relationship should in no way be passed on to other persons in any form without consent person concerned unless there is an obvious danger to anyone else.
In order to protect the rights of those who resort to psychol. services, developer the principle of "consumer welfare".
The principle concerning "professional relationships" draws attention to the obligations of psychologists when interacting with other professionals. Psychologists are expected to take into account the needs and skills of other professionals and ensure the best possible service for clients.
The principle governing the use of "assessment methods" requires psychologists to comply with the rules relating to these methods in order to ensure their reliability and prevent misuse.
The principle concerning “conducting research. with the participation of people”, being so complex that it deserves a separate large publication. There may be an insurmountable ethical conflict that one side of the scale should be placed on the value of the research and on the other side any potential risk to the participants.
The final principle covers "the care and treatment of animals". When using animals for research purposes. care must be taken to treat them humanely and to comply with applicable laws.
These ethical sections illustrate the types of problems faced by psychologists and other professionals. It is clear that the focus is on the protection of those with whom psychologists work. This also helps to protect the psychologists themselves by providing a framework in which work is carried out and by providing support to other colleagues. In addition, such attention protects against interference by non-professionals.
In dev. ethical standards and following them there are several. important issues. One of them is a strong difference in methods of working with clients, and many others. of them do not have clear standards in application. Further, the behavior of those who seek psychol. assistance is often in conflict with the social. expectations, and the psychologist is responsible for both parties. The third problem is the integration of the goals and values of the profession with the goals and values of the society in the form in which they are described in the legislation. Another problem is the work of psychologists in a non-psychological environment (eg, business) with different organizational standards. This is only a small part of the variety of problems that are associated with the development. clear ethical guidelines.
There are certain groups of clients, concerning to-rykh it is especially difficult for psychologists to pass judgments on ethics of practice. Persons suffering from mental disorders constitute one of these groups due to their inability to independently make effective decisions, which places an additional burden on the psychologist.
The second group requiring a special ethical approach are children due to their insufficient skills to protect themselves. Children's rights are particularly vulnerable to violence, as these rights are limited by law.
In family therapy, non-standard difficulties also arise. Confidentiality is difficult to maintain when therapists communicate with other family members outside of therapy sessions, and these communications, even if beneficial, must remain confidential.
Particular ethical problems arise in therapeutic groups, as their members are bound only by their own moral standards and not by formal ethical or legal norms. As a result, members of the group could potentially harm other members or be unable to maintain confidentiality.
Another group of issues concerns the ethical issues associated with paid clients. Insurance companies. If the psychologist accepts payment from the insurance company, he must provide her with certain information. about the client (e.g. diagnosis, justification for the need for therapy, number of sessions). Therefore, such inform. will no longer be confidential.
It is obvious that these ethical principles do not solve all the problems that psychologists face. Exceptions to typical situations of ethical judgment occur as changes in psychol. theory and practice. Integration of social and professional values with legal. requirements is a continuous process.
Consequently, ethical principles are not a frozen set of rules, but rather guiding lines, following which, each psychologist must, nevertheless, continuously make decisions for the benefit of all interested parties.
see also Confidential Communications Protected by Privilege, Professional Advice
T. S. Bennett
professional consulting ( occupational counseling)
P. k. is best distinguished from other related forms of assistance in the field of professions and careers (eg, career counseling, career counseling, career guidance) in its goals and content. Counseling focuses on preparing clients for entry into the profession and subsequent career steps, along with the traditional emphasis on career choice issues found in other related forms of counseling. In addition, professional consultants work with clients at all levels of the professional structure (eg skilled workers). Employment and subsequent support of the client is, therefore, important additional features consultant in P. to.
P.'s task to. consists in helping people. formulate their professional goals, determine the area of possible professions that are consistent with these goals, and implement their choice in the conditions of a real market situation. Job search as a task of consulting and the use of information. about the profession as a tool of counseling distinguish P. to. from its more choice-oriented counterparts.
P. k. has its roots in the movement of social. reforms of the late 1800s. Frank Parsons is considered its formal founder. Parsons described a three-step process in which the client learns about himself and the professions, and then combines both in the process of "making a balanced decision."
Professional consultants work in a variety of structures and organizations, including schools, social services. rehabilitation of convicted offenders, counseling centers, career planning centers, Veterans Affairs Administration ( Veterans Administration), Mrs. employment agency, public associations and, increasingly, in the executive branch, business and industrial sectors.
Similar information.
Lesson summary
Pedagogy and didactics
Purpose: to generalize and systematize students' knowledge about the basics of design in the field of production; to form practical skills and abilities to substantiate the main features of project activities and analyze projects on various grounds. Motivation for learning activities...
TECHNOLOGY
Grade 10
Section 1 Design as an integral part of modern production and human life
Topic #1 General Basics design in production activities person. Types of projects.
Target: generalize and systematize students' knowledge about the basics of design in the field of production; to form practical skills and abilities to substantiate the main features of project activities and analyze projects on various grounds. To develop logical thinking, attention, understanding, respect for people who perform the most common labor processes, interest in the professions of the region.
Lesson type combined
Lesson structure
- Organizing moment -2 min.
- Actualization of basic knowledge and skills of students - 10 min.
- Motivation for learning activities 2 min.
- Learning new material 23 min
- Consolidation of new knowledge 6 min
- Lesson summary 2 min
- Homework 2 min.
DURING THE CLASSES
- Organizing moment - greeting, list of students, allocation of places
Objectives of the course "Technology"
To master the methods of information retrieval used in different types of human technological activity;
Master the ability to practically use new information and communication technologies, including Internet technologies;
Familiarize yourself with the components of the design algorithm;
Learn to conduct economic and marketing research;
To get acquainted with the role of management in production activities and with the stages of the decision-making process;
Implement the knowledge gained in practice when creating your own design project, also using the knowledge gained in the lessons of labor training in grades 5-9.
2. UPDATING STUDENTS' KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
ANALYZE PROJECTS IN GRADES 5-9 (works on labor training), evaluate these results of these projects, mistakes made. Is it possible now to find other options for their implementation, taking into account the experience gained. What technological stages did the project consist of?
3. MOTIVATION
Today we will get acquainted with design technology as an integral part of human production activities, types of projects. With the help of the acquired knowledge and skills (the essence of the production project and the analysis of projects by type), you can feel like an adult and experienced worker in the field of production
(Write a concept in a notebook)
PROJECTS Method (from Latin thrown forward) - understand the work of solving one or another practically or theoretically significant problem, designed as a final product. The external (material) result of the work on the project can be seen, felt, applied in practice, used in Everyday life. But much more important is the internal (non-material result) experience of professional activity, acquired skills, knowledge, abilities.
- Brainstorm
- What kind of activity can be called a project and what are its features?
To summarize
PROJECT activity is special kind intellectual activity, distinctive features which is an independent search by students for the necessary information, its creative transformation into a materialized product (product, script, poster, multimedia presentation, etc.)
PROJECT is both a special type of cognitive activity and its result, which are characterized by the following features:
- The presence of a socially significant problem
- Planning actions to resolve it
- Search for information, its processing and comprehension
- Product design is the result of this activity
- Product presentation
The structure of project activities can be represented as a pyramid
Structure of project activities
Design stages
Design stages
|
E tap |
Completing of the work |
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Project justification |
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Search |
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Technological |
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final |
CLASSIFICATION OF PROJECTS
|
CLASSIFICATION FEATURES OF THE PROJECT |
PROJECT TYPE |
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1. By the nature of the changes |
Operational |
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Strategic |
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Small |
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Medium |
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Large |
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Short term |
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medium-term |
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Long term |
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Industrial |
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Construction |
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Transport |
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Educational |
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In the service sector |
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Complex |
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economic |
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Organizational |
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Technical |
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Social |
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mixed |
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Production |
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Technological |
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Financial |
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Research and Development |
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Marketing |
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Human Resources |
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Combined |
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International |
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National |
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Territorial |
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local |
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|
Simple |
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Complex |
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|
Very difficult (complex) |
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single function |
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Multifunctional |
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|
standard |
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With special requirements |
Considering the peculiarities of thinking, the preference for one or another type of activity
here is a classification of projects that you can do on your own or under the guidance of a teacher
|
Project type |
Kind of activity |
|
Practice Oriented |
A project that is aimed at solving problems that reflect the interests of the project participants or the customer (development of models of modern youth clothing, drawing up a menu for a thematic banquet, designing and manufacturing furniture, etc.) |
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Research |
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Informational |
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role-playing |
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creative |
Before starting a project, you need to
- choose form project activity product:
- determine the type of presentation of the project, taking into account the form of the product, the creative capabilities of the project participants, the availability of technical means: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
- in the course of designing, it is necessary to form a project portfolio a folder in which all working materials are collected (drafts, plans, product, review report, presentation materials, etc.)
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The creation of new items and new objects are conditioned by human needs. Design as a type of activity is used in all spheres of life: construction, business, making clothes, interior items, etc. Therefore, each technological process involves the creation project. Designed products can have different forms, must satisfy the fantasies and needs of the people who use them. Such products must meet their purpose, modern standards and requirements.
At enterprises, to create beautiful, useful and high-quality products, a large number of specialists take part in the development of the project - designers, constructors, technologists, doctors, economists and etc.
Rice. 126. Creative work of designers and constructors
Product design consists of the following steps:
- Determination of the purpose of the future product.
- Determination of requirements for the future product.
- Analysis of possible variants of product models.
- Development of a sketch of the future product.
- Performing calculations, clarifying the form and design of the product.
- Creation of working documentation.
Design (from lat. projectus-pre-conceived idea) - the process of creating a project of a future object and methods for its manufacture.
The emergence and development of organizational design
Organizational design emerged as a separate area scientific organization labor of managers and specialists, which is a system design of the division and cooperation of mental labor, organization of jobs, working conditions, labor rationing and other areas of its organization in the middle of the 20th century.
Change in the nature of mental work associated with development information technologies, the emergence of new labor functions, specialties, professions, the emergence international standards quality, ecology, management caused the need to search for new methods of system design of mental work.
The understanding of organizational design has expanded. Currently, methods are being formed according to unified methodological schemes. integrated assessment quality of managerial work, design of automated workstations, automated systems management, rational division and cooperation of labor.
A systematic study of the organization of management processes in Russia, Belarus, contributed to the formation of such new areas of organizational design as the regulation of managerial work and the design of management system standards for organizations.
The development of organizational design in the United States and the European Union led to the emergence of organizational reengineering, the formation of a methodology structural analysis and Design (SADT) and the IDEF Methodology Framework.
The development of organizational design is currently going in the direction of creating a methodology and methodological tools for the integrated design of systems for improving the work of managerial personnel. Organizational design in the modern sense is a set of methodological tools that allow you to streamline, bring management processes into a system.
Design as a process, depending on the design object, can be represented as:
· strategic;
· organizational;
· investment;
design;
technological.
All of the listed types of design take place in the organization of management of the production and economic activities of enterprises and their associations. The design of any object is associated with the creation, transformation and presentation in the accepted form of the image of this object, more often its constituent parts, i.e. functionally interacting structural elements of the whole. This image can be created in the imagination of a creative person or generated by some algorithms in the process of interaction between a person and a PC. For strategic design, the created image can be presented in the form of a set of strategies, for marketing design - in the form of a marketing program for promoting goods, market research, etc., for organizational design - in the form of a special organization of the object under consideration, organizational decisions that increase management efficiency and , respectively, economic activity.
As a rule, design begins when there is a design task that reflects the needs of society, government agencies of the country or the administration of enterprises. The result of the design is a complex management decisions, expressed as a complete set of documentation containing sufficient information to organize a particular type of activity or create an object. Converting the original information to design solutions generates intermediate descriptions - design decisions that are the subject of further consideration in order to complete the design.
From the point of view of decision-making, design is a process of developing managerial, design, social, economic decisions aimed at obtaining the desired effect.
From an informational point of view, design is the process of converting input information about the design object, the state of knowledge in the area under consideration, the experience of designing objects of a similar purpose into output information in the form of design, technological, economic, organizational documentation that allows material realization project.
From an organizational point of view, different approaches can be applied to the design process. First of all - block - hierarchical. According to this approach, the designed system is divided into hierarchical levels. On the highest level the least detailed representation is used, reflecting only the general features and features of the system being designed. At the next levels, the degree of detail of consideration increases. In this case, the system is considered as separate blocks. Any system is a collection of objects, the interaction of which causes the emergence of new, integrative properties.
Each system has its own internal structure (structure, functions, factors that ensure the integrity of the organization). For example, the system of organizing managerial labor includes: living labor itself (expenditure of labor power), objects of labor, means of labor, which serve as a measure of the development of the labor force, as well as an indicator of social relations. The functions of such a system constitute a manifestation of the internal content of the system in its relations with the external environment. To reveal the structure of an object is to mention its parts and the ways in which it enters into relationships. The final assessment of the quality of the solutions obtained, as a rule, is carried out according to functional models.
Organizational design differs from other types of design not only in the form of the result and the field of study, but also in the need to take into account the nature and interconnections. a large number factors influencing the construction of the object under study, and determining its economic efficiency.
The difference between organizational design is also the need mandatory structural and parametric optimization of the objects under consideration (using structural and functional models).
With the improvement of computer technology and information - software an increasing number of design procedures are transferred to automatic (batch) mode. When automating the design, significant difficulties arise at the stage of formalizing the tasks of organizing the management of investments, technological and labor processes. In many cases, it is possible to obtain mathematical models that allow the use of approximate algorithms for solving problems. Mathematical modeling is the process of creating a model and operating it in order to obtain information about a real object. Mathematical model is a set of mathematical objects (numbers, symbols, sets) and links between them, reflecting the most important properties of the object for the designer. The model is created for the sake of cognitive, practical purposes, abstracting from the many characteristics of the system under study, it creates some kind of ideal system design that is accessible to study. Modeling of transient processes, statistical regimes, particular characteristics can be reduced to solving systems of differential equations.
Section 2 Organizational Design Methodology
The change in the nature of mental work associated with the development of information technology, the emergence of new labor functions, specialties, professions, the emergence of international standards for quality, ecology, and management necessitated the search for new methods of system design of mental work.
The understanding of organizational design has expanded. At present, according to unified methodological schemes, methods for a comprehensive assessment of the quality of managerial work, design of automated workplaces, automated control systems, rational division and cooperation of labor are being formed.
A systematic study of the organization of management processes in Russia, Belarus, contributed to the formation of such new areas of organizational design as the regulation of managerial work and the design of management system standards for organizations.
The development of organizational design in the United States and the European Union led to the emergence of organizational reengineering, the formation of the methodology of structural analysis and design (SADT) and the IDEF methodological system.
The development of organizational design is currently going in the direction of creating a methodology and methodological tools for the integrated design of systems for improving the work of managerial personnel. Organizational design in the modern sense is a set of methodological tools that allow you to streamline, bring management processes into a system.
2. Design as an activity
Design as a process, depending on the design object, can be represented as: strategic; organizational; investment; design; technological.
The design of any object is associated with the creation, transformation and presentation in the accepted form of the image of this object, more often its constituent parts. For strategic design the created image can be presented in the form of a set of strategies, for organizational design- in the form of a special organization of the object under consideration, organizational decisions that increase the efficiency of management and, accordingly, economic activity.
Design begins when there is a design assignment, and the result of the design is a set of management decisions, expressed in the form of a complete set of documentation.
From a decision-making point of view, design is the process of developing managerial, design, social, economic decisions aimed at obtaining the desired effect. From an information point of view, design there is a process of converting input information about the design object into output information in the form of design - technological, economic, organizational documentation. From an organizational point of view different approaches can be applied to the design process. Primarily - block - hierarchical. According to which the designed system is divided into hierarchical levels. At the highest level, only the general features and features of the system being designed are used. At the next levels, the degree of detail of consideration increases.
Each system has its own internal structure (structure, functions, factors that ensure the integrity of the organization). For example, the system of organizing managerial labor includes: living labor itself (expenditure of labor power), objects of labor, means of labor, which serve as a measure of the development of the labor force, as well as an indicator of social relations. The functions of such a system constitute a manifestation of the internal content of the system in its relations with the external environment. To reveal the structure of an object means to mention its parts and the ways in which it enters into relationships.
Organizational design differs from other types of design not only in the form of the result and the scope of the study, but also in the need to take into account the nature and interconnections of a large number of factors that affect the construction of the object under study and determine its economic efficiency.
The difference between organizational design is also the need for mandatory structural and parametric optimization of the objects under consideration (using structural and functional models).
At present, the systematic approach is used without exception in all fields of science. The application of a systematic approach to the study of an object means endowing it with the properties and patterns of the system's existence.
Under system should be understood as a complex whole, which consists of many elements, united by various relationships and separated from what surrounds them by some kind of boundaries. System element- this is an object that, being an integral part of the system, performs a certain function, and is not subject to further dismemberment during this study.
The most important property of the system - integrity "cannot be considered without using the concept" relationships" and "connections".
Connection characterizes the totality of new properties that arise and exist in the process of mutual influence of objects. Communication is impersonal, and relationships imply the interaction of subject and object.
Relations presuppose the presence of a subject and an object of relations, the presence of an active driving force that initiates relations. The subjective component of the concept " relations", not only reflects
