When Alexander III compared the reigns of his grandfather and father, he gave preference to the former. But he could not help but take into account that his grandfather's reign ended with the Crimean War, and his father's - with a successful campaign of 1877-1878. So, Alexander III reasoned, a return to the grandfather's testaments should be accompanied by state support strategically important industries related to the production of weapons. One line of policy must be complemented by another. And the further the government went in its feudal policy on the peasant question, the more generously it financed the development of large-scale industry—private capitalist and government.
The growing impoverishment of the countryside greatly narrowed the market for Russian industry. The pace of its development in the 80s and early 90s. were lethargic. Wishing to support industry, the government began to expand the construction of railways, began to re-equip the army and create an armored fleet. It was for these purposes that the ransom payments that the government pumped out of the village went. Government orders required the expansion of existing and the construction of new metallurgical and machine-building plants. The equipment for them was almost entirely imported from abroad. In order to have foreign currency, the government stimulated the export of grain in every possible way. The fall in grain prices on the world market was made up for by the expansion of exports, despite the fact that the country went on hunger strikes. “We are undernourished, but we will take it out,” said Finance Minister I. L. Vyshnegradsky.
In 1892 Sergei Yulievich Witte (1849-1915) was appointed Minister of Finance. At one time, he went through the school of entrepreneurship, had reliable connections in the financial and industrial world, and treated with contempt the "noble beggars," as he called the landowners who begged for handouts.
Witte believed that the state should actively promote industrial development. But where will the money come from? The redemption payments were getting worse, the peasants' arrears grew. And Witte restored the long-forgotten wine monopoly. The state took into the treasury the income of the tavern-keepers. The price of vodka rose, and the profits from the wine monopoly played into state budget More and more important role. Critics of the government, not without reason, spoke of a "drunken budget."
In 1897, the implementation was completed monetary reform. Witte introduced the gold backing of the ruble, which became a convertible currency. This increased the inflow of capital from abroad. French and Belgian capitalists showed interest in the metallurgical and coal industries of southern Russia. English entrepreneurs invested in oil production. German capital went into engineering, electrical and chemical industries.
Industrial rise of the 90s. 19th century In 1893 an unprecedented industrial boom began in Russia. It covered, first of all, ferrous metallurgy and mechanical engineering - those industries that received government support. It was then that the complex of heavy industry enterprises in the south of Russia (on the border of the Great Russian and Ukrainian provinces) finally took shape. New machine-building plants were built in St. Petersburg, Moscow and the Moscow region. Development started oil fields in the Grozny region.
New enterprises created with the participation foreign capital, borrowed Western technology, Western forms of production. On Russian soil, industrial monsters unprecedented here arose. The Russian worker's lack of sufficient dexterity and the cheapness of labor allowed the owners to hire more workers than were employed in similar factories in Western countries. In Russia, there has been an overestimated level of concentration of production and labor in the largest factories and plants. At these enterprises, within several industrial regions (St. Petersburg, Moscow and the Moscow region, the South, the Urals), huge masses of workers were concentrated. The government realized too late what a trap it had set for itself by allowing the transformation of St. Petersburg into a powerful industrial center.
State factories constituted a special sector of Russian industry. The government believed that in the matter of arming the army, it should not depend on private capital. The production of small arms was concentrated at the state-owned Izhevsk, Tula and Sestroretsk plants. Armor for ships was produced by the Izhora plant near St. Petersburg, the hulls were produced at the Admiralty shipyards in St. Petersburg and Nikolaev. The Obukhovsky plant near St. Petersburg was also under the jurisdiction of the Naval Ministry.
State factories consisted of budget financing. The real price of their products often remained unknown. Profit, loss, cost - such concepts were not known at state-owned factories. Even conditionally, this way of managing can hardly be called capitalist. State-owned enterprises arose in Russia in the pre-reform era. Under Alexander II, some of them passed into private hands. But then the government again expanded state-owned production.
In the 90s. a large industry was created in Russia. The importance of Russia in world industrial production has increased. The railway network has expanded. These were major achievements. But they also had a dark side. Involved in the world arms race, the government spent huge amounts of money on military needs.
The optimal ratio between heavy and light industry is approximately 1:4. On the eve of the industrial upsurge, it was approximately 1:5 in Russia. Russian industry had a slightly "lightweight" character. During the years of growth, the share of heavy industry (primarily metallurgy and metalworking) rose to 1/3. Now, therefore, there is an inverse disproportion. In a country with backward agriculture and a narrow market, a powerful sector of heavy industry was created. It could not exist without government handouts.
The consequences came very quickly. On September 2, 1899, the price of shares of leading industrial companies fell sharply on the St. Petersburg Stock Exchange. Government intervention did not restore the balance. In 1900, an industrial crisis broke out, affecting primarily heavy industry enterprises. The textile and food industries have maintained fairly high growth rates.
The working class and the labor movement. During the last third of the 19th century the number of workers in Russia tripled and by 1900 amounted to about 3 million people. The ranks of the working class were replenished mainly at the expense of the peasants. Their separation from the ground was slow. Insurance against illness and accidents did not exist then, and there were no pensions either. Many workers in their old age returned to live out their lives in the village. The land allotment was insurance for them. In factories that worked in one shift, the working day reached 14-15 hours. At enterprises with a two-shift regime, it was 12 hours. The labor of women and adolescents was widely used. Wage workers in Russia was 2 times lower than in England, 4 times lower than in the USA.
In Russia in late XIX in. began a rapid industrial boom. During this decade, the output of industrial products has doubled, including the output of heavy industry - 2.5 times. For individual industries, it looked like in the following way: the extraction of coal increased three times, oil - 2.5 times. In terms of oil production, Russia came out on top in the world. The metallurgical industry tripled its output, including a seven-fold increase in metal production in the south. During these years, the south decisively overtook the Ural metallurgy and began to produce more than half of the country's ferrous metals.
By volume industrial production by the beginning of the 20th century. Russia ranked fifth in the world, but was the leader in terms of growth, catching up with the most advanced countries.
Russia also led in terms of concentration of production. At large enterprises, i.e. in enterprises with more than 500 workers, about half of all workers were employed, and even Germany, which stood out among other countries in terms of concentration of production, lagged behind Russia in this indicator.
Let us consider the main circumstances that stimulated this rise and determined its features.
- 1. Russia was a country of young capitalism. Later than other countries, it moved to industrialization, so most industrial enterprises, operating by the beginning of the 20th century, were built in recent decades. These were new factories equipped with modern technology, in accordance with the requirements of the time, these were large joint-stock enterprises. In the countries of old capitalism (by the beginning of the 20th century), most enterprises were built much earlier, in the first half of the 19th century, so their equipment was already relatively outdated and they were relatively small.
- 2. Foreign capital poured into Russian industry. High protective duties prevented the import of foreign goods, but it was possible to bring capital into Russia, build an enterprise and sell the products of this enterprise without duties. In 1890, foreigners owned 1/3 of all share capital in Russia, and in 1900 already about half. The bulk of foreign capital was invested in heavy industry. Of course, factories in Russia brought huge profits to foreigners, but foreign capital accelerated the development of Russian industry. Factories built by foreign entrepreneurs remained in Russia, became an organic part of Russian economy. Engineers and workers trained at these factories remained in Russia. In addition, foreign factories were large: small capitals are not exported.
- 3. Contributed to the rise and determined its features and state railway construction. In the 1890s The Great Siberian Railway was laid - from the Urals to the Pacific Ocean. It was built by the state. In total, 2/3 of the railways in Russia were in the hands of the state. Along the length of railways by the beginning of the 20th century. Russia ranked second in the world. This achievement was, however, very relative, given the territory. In Russia, per 1000 sq. km accounted for 1.5 km of railways, in England - 106 km, in Germany - 80 km. The construction of railways gave a strong impetus to the development of the main branches of heavy industry, providing orders for metal, coal, steam locomotives, i.e. creating a market for the relevant industries.
In the 90s. in Russia there was a rapid industrial boom. Over this decade, industrial output has doubled, including the output of heavy industry - 2.5 times. For individual industries, it looked like this:
Coal production increased 3 times, oil production - 2.5 times. In terms of oil production, Russia came out on top in the world. The metallurgical industry increased its output by 3 times, including in the south metal production increased by 7 times. During these years, the south decisively overtook the Ural metallurgy and began to produce more than half of the country's ferrous metals.
In terms of industrial production by the beginning of the 20th century. Russia occupied the 5th place in the world, but was in the lead in terms of growth, catching up with the most advanced countries.
Russia also led in terms of concentration of production. Here, at large enterprises, i.e. at enterprises with more than 500 workers, about half of all workers were employed, and even Germany, which stood out among other countries in terms of concentration of production, lagged behind Russia in this indicator.
Let us consider the main circumstances that stimulated this rise and determined its features.
- 1. Russia was a country of young capitalism. It moved to industrialization later than other countries, so most of the industrial enterprises operating by the beginning of the 20th century were built in recent decades. These were new factories equipped with new technology, and in accordance with the requirements of the time, these were large joint-stock enterprises. In the countries of old capitalism, most enterprises were built much earlier, in the first half of the 19th century. Therefore, their equipment by the beginning of the 20th century. already relatively outdated, and they were relatively small.
- 2. Foreign capital poured into Russian industry. High protective duties prevented the import of foreign goods here, but it was possible to import capital, build
In terms of industrial production to start XX in. Russiaoccupied 5th place in the world, but the fastest growth rate, catching up with the most advanced countries. Russia also led by the concentration of production. Here, about half of all workers were employed in the steep predariagiya, ie, in enterprises with more than 500 workers.
here is an enterprise and sell the products of this enterprise, of course, without duties. In 1890, foreigners owned 1/3 of all share capital in Russia, and in 1900 already about half. The bulk of foreign capital was invested in heavy industry.
Of course, factories in Russia brought huge profits to foreigners, but foreign capital accelerated the development of Russian industry. Factories built by foreign entrepreneurs remained on Russian soil and became an organic part of the Russian economy. Engineers and workers trained at these factories remained in Russia. In addition, foreign factories were large: small capitals are not exported.
3. Contributed to the rise and determined its features and state railway construction. In the 90s. The Great Siberian Railway was laid - from the Urals to the Pacific Ocean. It was built by the state. In total, 2/3 of the railways in Russia were in the hands of the state.
Along the length of railways by the beginning of the 20th century. Russia took 2nd place in the world. This achievement was, however, very relative, given the territory. In Russia, per 1000 sq. km accounted for 1.5 km of railways, in England - 106 km, in Germany - 80 km.
But the construction of railways gave a strong impetus to the development of the main branches of heavy industry, providing orders for metal, coal, steam locomotives, that is, creating a sales market for the respective industries.
In 1893 in Russia began an unprecedented industrial boom. It covered, first of all, those industries that received government support - ferrous metallurgy and engineering. It was then that the complex of heavy industry enterprises in the south of Russia finally took shape. New machine-building plants were built in St. Petersburg, Moscow and the Moscow region.
New enterprises created with the participation of foreign capital borrowed the advanced organizational and technical forms of production that had developed in the West. On Russian soil, industrial monsters, unprecedented here, arose, Molochs, as the writer A.I. called them. Kuprin. The Russian worker's lack of sufficient skill and the cheapness of labor forced entrepreneurs to hire more workers than in similar factories in Western countries. In Russia, an overestimated level of concentration of production has developed at the largest factories and plants. At these enterprises, within several industrial regions (St. Petersburg, Moscow and the Moscow region, the South, the Urals and Baku), huge masses of industrial workers were concentrated. The government realized too late what a trap it had set for itself by allowing the transformation of St. Petersburg into a powerful industrial center.
State-owned enterprises constituted a special sector of Russian industry. The government believed that in arming the army it should not depend on private capital. The production of small arms was concentrated at the state-owned Izhevsk, Tula and Sestroretsk plants. Armor for ships was produced by the Izhora plant near St. Petersburg, the hulls were produced at the Admiralty shipyards in St. Petersburg and Nikolaev.
State-owned factories were on budget financing. The real price of their products often remained unknown. Profit, loss, cost - such concepts were not known at state-owned factories. Even conditionally, this way of managing can hardly be called capitalist. State-owned enterprises emerged in Russia in the pre-reform era. Under Alexander II, some of them passed into private hands. But then the government again expanded state-owned production.
As a result of the industrial boom of the 1890s. modern large-scale industry was created in Russia. The share of our country in world industrial production has increased. In iron smelting, Russia overtook Belgium, Austria-Hungary and France. Its share in world pig iron production rose to 7%. The railway network has expanded significantly. These were major achievements.
But they also had a dark side. Involved in the world arms race, the government spent huge amounts of money on military needs. In addition, during the years of growth, with a sharp increase in heavy industry, the share of light industry decreased, which led to economic disproportion. As a result, at the end of 1899. the share price of leading companies fell sharply on the stock exchange. Government intervention did not restore the balance. Since 1900 a decrease in growth rates began, and then in production volumes in a number of branches of heavy industry, a powerful economic crisis erupted.
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Industrial rise of the 90s. Russian industrialization in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. is inextricably linked with the name of S.Yu. Witte, who served as Minister of Finance (1893-1903) and was the main developer economic course government during this period. Being a far-sighted and intelligent politician, he was aware of the need for reforms in the country. Priority S.Yu. Witte considered economic reforms, and among them - reforms in the field of industrial production. He believed that the industrialization of the country was not only an economic task, but also a political one, since its implementation would make it possible to accumulate funds for social reforms to modernize Agriculture and gradually oust the nobility from the Russian political scene, replacing it with the power of big capital. The comprehensive program for restructuring the entire economy of the country also provided for financial stabilization, protectionism, with significant government intervention in market economy, activation foreign trade(creation of its own powerful merchant fleet).
In the early 90s. nineteenth century main focus in economic policy was made to stabilize financial position countries. This course included the following main areas:
Rigid tax policy; increase in indirect taxes due to excise duties on consumer goods; introduction of a state monopoly on the production and sale of vodka;
The financial reform (1897), the essence of which was the introduction of a gold backing of the ruble, its free convertibility, strict control over the issuance process (this reform caused extreme dissatisfaction with Russian landowners - grain exporters, because they lost the opportunity to extract additional profit through the exchange foreign exchange for paper rubles);
Development of banking;
The widespread attraction of foreign capital into the country, which was carried out either in the form of government bonds distributed in the British, German, Belgian and, mainly, French markets valuable papers or in the form of direct investment in enterprises.
These measures made it possible for several years to concentrate significant budgetary and other revenues and direct them to the development of industries that are priority for the state. First of all, active railway construction was continued. From 1893 to 1902 27,000 km of railways were built in Russia (which almost doubled the length of the railway network). It should be noted that this was a long-term thoughtful policy, correctly taking into account the enormous importance of railways for the future of the country's economy.
Railways, creating strong transport links and strengthening the production specialization of individual regions, contributed to the strengthening and expansion domestic market as one of the most important conditions for the development of capitalism.
Railway construction and related government orders created a steady demand for metal, fuel, timber and other materials, caused an industrial boom in Russia. at a high pace industries such as transport engineering, metallurgy, the extraction of metal ores, coal, and oil developed. The construction of new and expansion of existing factories necessitated the attraction of additional labor, which, in turn, necessitated an increase in urban construction, created additional demand for light industry products. Textile production and the food industry occupied consistently leading positions in the Russian economy.
The development of domestic industry was facilitated by the course of strengthening protectionism pursued by the tsarist government in the second half of the 19th century. The most patronizing was the customs tariff of 1891. Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte went to the "customs war" with Germany. In the future, especially after the Russo-Japanese war and the revolution of 1905-1907, Russian government, needing loans, made concessions in trade agreements with France and Germany.
By the end of the nineteenth century. the basic principles were developed and legally enshrined state system orders. Orders were to be distributed within the country, despite the possibility of a more profitable placement abroad. So, orders for rails were given to the factories of the South for 1 rub. 25 kop. - 2 rub. per pood, although abroad you could buy them for 80-85 kopecks. for a pud. At the same time, the practice of transferring orders to the largest Russian factories was developed, especially during periods of crisis and depression. Together with the receipt of the order, manufacturers received an additional subsidy.
The system of protectionism also had a negative side: maintaining high prices for domestic goods and limiting incentives to increase technical level and quality of products of the Russian industry in the absence of foreign competition; a significant rise in prices due to high duties on foreign products, the demand for which the Russian industry could not satisfy (for example, agricultural machinery, fertilizers). Witte saw the only way out in accelerating the formation of an independent competitive national industry.
In 1891-1900. Russia has made a giant leap in its industrial development. Over the decade, the volume of the country's industrial production has doubled, and the size of the proletariat - 1.5 times. At the same time, the production of means of production increased threefold and by the beginning of the 20th century. gave about 40% of all production at a cost. By the beginning of the twentieth century. Russia was an agrarian-industrial country; in absolute terms of industrial production, it entered the top five industrial powers in the world.
Significant shifts have also taken place in the distribution of production forces. The most important of them was the transformation of the Southern industrial region into the main center of mining metallurgy.
An important feature of Russian industry was the high concentration of production. Use developed in the West organizational forms and technologies of large-capitalist production, foreign investment, government orders and subsidies - all this contributed to the emergence and growth of large enterprises. High level concentration of production was one of the reasons for the beginning of the 80-90s of the nineteenth century. the process of monopolization, when the first cartels and syndicates arose - marketing associations operating under the guise of entrepreneurial unions (the Union of Rail Manufacturers, the Union of Rail Fastener Manufacturers, the Wagon Union, etc.), since according to Russian laws"Strikes" (agreements) of traders on price fixing were prohibited.
In the second half of the 90s. the merging of Russian banks with industry began, expressed in the emergence of "spheres of interest" of the largest Russian banks in industry - by 1900. Petersburg international bank turned out to be interested in more than 20, and the Petersburg accounting and loan bank- in almost 30 enterprises.
