NON-STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

INSTITUTE OF COMMERCE AND LAW

COURSE WORK

By discipline - Money, credit, banks

On the topic: The monetary reform of S. Witte in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century and its significance for economic development

Completed by a student

Branches "Finance and Credit"

Shiryaeva T.B.

Checked by d.e.s. Korchagin V.V.

MOSCOW 2013

Introduction

Chapter 1. Witte's Monetary Reform

1 Personality S.Yu. Witte

2 The sequence of the monetary reform

3 Attitude in society towards monetary reform and its significance for the Russian economy

Chapter 2. The projection of the Witte reform on modern Russia

1 Financial system and the Russian economy at present

2 Possible reforms in Russia

Conclusion

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

monetary reform witte

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the Russian Empire intensively developed the industrial sphere of production, increased economic power countries to become on a par with the strongest powers of the world at that time.

Russian capitalism in last quarter XIX - early XX centuries. He joined imperialist stage which is in line with global trends. The monetary reform of 1987, which is called the Witte reform, was the locomotive that pulled the industry of Russia, thereby accelerating the modernization of the state. The need for monetary reform in Russia was dictated by the development of industry. In the years 1893-1899, the most rapid growth took place in the branches of heavy industry, production increased in the mining and metallurgical industries, in mechanical engineering. In the 90s of the XIX century. monopoly associations - cartels and syndicates - become relevant in the Russian economy, joint-stock companies arise commercial banks. But for the sustainable development of the economy it was necessary stable currency, which would prevent the depreciation money capital. This would help attract foreign investment which were needed by the industry due to the lack of domestic capital. An attempt to strengthen the credit ruble by withdrawing "extra" paper money out of circulation was defeated. And to late XIX in. the necessity of transition to gold currency became more and more clear.

The first on this path was Great Britain, which introduced the gold standard in 1816. Then Sweden, Germany, Norway, Denmark, Holland, Italy, Greece and Belgium switched to gold currency circulation.

Russia was part of the world market, so there was a need to create the same monetary system as in other European countries. The ruble was a fully convertible currency, but the sale of foreign currency for rubles and the unlimited export of credit rubles abroad hindered development foreign trade and reduced budget revenues. This prevented the inflow of foreign capital into the country, as future profits in gold currency became uncertain, and investments became risky. Thus, the main reason for the monetary reform of 1895-97. the government's interest in developing foreign economic relations Russia.

Powerful dash industrial production provided successful reign Emperor Alexander III, who adhered to a position of neutrality in relations with all world powers and did not allow the country to be drawn into military conflicts, which made it possible to direct the state's resources to the development of production and industry as much as possible. The pragmatic interests of the nation and sound logic underlay the policy of this Russian emperor. Russian " economic miracle At the end of the nineteenth century, the explanation is simple: there were no wars during the reign of Alexander III. Black holes of endless conflicts and clashes, pan-European fires and small battles under Alexander III have ceased to devour the strength of the Russian people. For the first time in many years, the resources of the country, all its might, were directed to internal development.

In particular, the construction of an extensive network of railways in the European and Asian parts Russian Empire, which was strongly promoted by S.Yu. Witte is the founder of monetary reform, who began his career as a specialist in the operation of railways and reached the post of Minister of Finance, which he held for 11 years.

CHAPTER 1. WITTE'S MONETARY REFORM

1.1PERSONALITY S.Yu. WITTE

Sergei Yulievich Witte went down in history - as they would say today - as an effective manager. At the very beginning of his career, after a failure in the field of science, he specialized in the commercial field of railway business. While serving as Minister of Railways, Witte increased the profitability of industry and transport. Looking at the biography of this statesman, we can admit: developing commercial transport<#"justify">So what kind of person was this - Sergei Yulievich Witte? This famous dignitary had a noticeable, and in many cases decisive influence on various directions of the foreign, but especially the internal policy of the empire, becoming a kind of symbol of the possibilities and at the same time the helplessness of a powerful state system. The significance and scope of his historical role is comparable only with the personality of another outstanding administrator - the reformer of the period of the decline of the monarchy - Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin. Witte was a sharp, purposeful, ambitious person, ready to overcome adverse circumstances without regard to established canons and ideas. It was a broad Russian nature, which at times was cramped in the present; a nature that often combined opposite feelings, ideas and often succumbed to impulsive impulses that caused misunderstanding and condemnation.

Bureaucratic career of S.Yu. Witte began in 1888, when he became personally known to Emperor Alexander III. He refused to start the royal train at an increased speed, as demanded by the emperor's retinue, and thereby caused great displeasure of the authorities. But two months later, a catastrophe occurred precisely for the reasons Witte named. They remembered him, and soon he was invited to St. Petersburg. I. Vyshnegradsky, who was at that time the Minister of Finance, offered him the position of director of the department of railway affairs. At first he headed the department of railway affairs in the Ministry of Finance, and then - from February 1892 - the Ministry of Railways.

The Minister of Railways Witte was appointed to the post of Minister of Finance in 1892, where he served for 11 years. All the successes and achievements of S. Yu. Witte are connected with this work, one of the main works of his life was carried out here - the monetary reform. Witte did not immediately approve the financial policy of his predecessor Vyshnegradsky I.A. on the introduction of the gold parity. The eminent scientist Vyshnegradsky, convinced of the success of the reorientation of the monetary circulation of Austria-Hungary to gold, invited the initiator of this transition, financier Adolf Rothstein (who participated in the development and implementation of the Austrian law on gold circulation) to Russia. Later, Adolf Rothstein took the position of director of the St. Petersburg International Commercial Bank (in 1896 - 1904) and became confidant Witte. When resigning, Vyshnegradsky gave Witte a note that outlined his thoughts on the forthcoming reform of monetary circulation. A certain restraint in spending was listed among a number of preliminary measures. budget funds, and the continuation of the policy of increasing export and import revenues, and the conversion external loans, designed to increase the terms of payments and lower interest on them, and reduce the percentage of income from bonds and mortgages of land banks, which should have contributed to the transfer of capital into the commercial and industrial sphere. In fact, Witte adhered to this line, having carried out a number of conversions of old and concluded several new loans on relatively favorable terms for Russia.

Having taken the chair as one of the most influential ministers, Witte showed himself to be a real politician, declaring his readiness to bring Russia into the ranks of advanced industrial powers within two five years. This supremely talented man was given the task of transforming the economic life of the country. In 1897, he said: "The same thing is happening in Russia now that happened in its time in the West: it is going over to the capitalist system ... Russia must go over to it. This is the world's immutable law."

At the turn of the 20th century, Witte's economic platform took on a very definite and purposeful character: over the course of about 10 years, to catch up industrially with more than the developed countries Europe, take a strong position in the markets of the Middle, Middle and Far East. Accelerated industrial development was ensured by attracting foreign capital, accumulating domestic resources with the help of the state wine monopoly and strengthening indirect taxation, customs protection of industry from Western competitors and encouraging export. Foreign capital was given a special role in it - at the end of the 90s, Witte advocated their unlimited involvement in Russian industry and the railway business. Russian government tried to take loans not from international financial institutions, but placed its obligations on domestic market foreign states. "Russian papers" were specially issued in low denominations, which made them accessible to the petty bourgeois, employees, and even servants. By limiting the import of foreign goods into Russia with high customs duties, the government encouraged the export of various tax incentives and prizes. Witte was not afraid to start a real customs war with Germany, having achieved equal rights trade relations with this country. Varying tax rates, the Ministry of Finance created the most favorable conditions in one or another industry, directing the flow of capital in the right direction. For successful economic competition with the West in the coming 20th century, for more vigorous industrial and agricultural development, financial stabilization was needed. Tough tax, customs and conversion measures made it possible by the end of the 80s. to achieve a deficit-free budget and stable growth of gold reserves. S.Yu. Witte saw that during the 80s. the exchange rate of the credit ruble was subject to significant fluctuations, and therefore continued to intensively accumulate gold and foreign exchange reserves.

In 1894-1895, Witte achieved the stabilization of the ruble, and in 1897 he did what his predecessors could not do - he introduced gold money circulation, providing the country with a hard currency until the First World War and an influx of foreign capital. At the same time, taxation, especially indirect taxation, increased sharply.

The peculiarity of the course cited by Witte was that he, like none of the tsarist finance ministers, made extensive use of the exceptional economic strength power that existed in Russia. guns government intervention served National Bank and institutions of the Minister of Finance that controlled the activities of commercial banks.

He also pursued an independent personnel policy, issued a circular on recruiting people with higher education. He paid much attention to the creation of an educational system that trained personnel for industry, in particular, the opening of new "commercial" educational institutions.

In the summer of 1905, he was sent by the emperor to the United States to conclude the Portsmouth Peace Treaty.<#"justify">1.2.SEQUENCE OF MONETARY REFORM

Witte's first task was to decide which way to carry out monetary transformation: to take a course towards gold monometallism or bimetallism, which uses in equally both gold and silver. At first, Witte leaned towards the second option, because Russia was accustomed to the circulation of coins from different metals, and silver reserves had accumulated in huge quantities. But he understood that there was a risk of a decrease in the value of one parity if there was an increase in the conjuncture of another parity, which, of course, would affect the stability of credit notes backed by two metals. After weighing everything, Witte approved monometallism. Finance Minister S. Yu. Witte in February 1895 submitted a report to Emperor Nicholas II on the need to introduce gold circulation. The new project of financial reform was approved by the king. Witte decided to introduce the gold standard adopted in England and many other countries of the world. In the bill presented to the State Council in March 1896 On the correction of money circulation S. Yu. Witte in the following way determined the main conditions for the implementation and goals of the reform: To consolidate the successes achieved in the field of financial economy by laying a solid foundation for metallic money circulation under them . At the same time, the reform should be carried out in such a way as not to cause the slightest shock and any artificial changes in the existing conditions, because all estimates, all property and labor interests of the population rest on the monetary system ... The projected reform, without violating popular habits, without fluctuating prices , without bringing confusion into all calculations, will lead to the transition of our country from legally uncertain, economically harmful and politically dangerous paper money circulation to the circulation of gold coins and tokens for it.

The "gold standard" is such a monetary system when gold is recognized and used as the only monetary commodity and the universal equivalent of values. This standard is not subject to inflation. In the event of a decline in economic activity, gold coins went out of circulation and settled with the population, and when the need for money expanded, gold was put back into circulation. Gold money retained its face value. This simplified the payment of foreign economic transactions and contributed to the development of world trade. Historically, the gold standard was carried out in three forms - gold coinage, gold bullion and gold exchange (the last two forms existed in the 20th century).

In the 19th century, especially in its last quarter, most countries switched to a gold-exchange system in connection with the enormous growth in commodity circulation and the development of credit. England actually switched to a gold currency at the end of the 18th century, and gold monometallism was officially proclaimed in 1816. In the 70s it was introduced in Germany, in the Scandinavian countries, in the countries of the Latin Monetary Union (France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland), as well as in Greece and the USA, and in the 90s in Austria-Hungary, Japan and Argentina. Thus, all world economy. Therefore, it must be emphasized that the collapse of the Russian monetary system during the First World War was not a failure of the Witte model, but an integral part of the collapse of the world system of gold monometallism.

The monetary reform in Russia was being prepared for quite a long time and took a total of 15-17 years. A significant contribution to its implementation was made by three previous ministers of finance - M. Reitern, N. Bunge and I. Vyshnegradsky. S.Yu. Witte went on and completed their work. The purpose of the preparation is to replace the inflationary circulation of fiat paper money with the gold standard system. It was necessary not only to return to metallic circulation instead of paper money, but also to change the basis of the monetary system: to move from the silver standard to the gold one. It was necessary to achieve a positive balance of payments and the accumulation of gold reserves (by increasing exports, restricting imports, pursuing a protectionist policy, and concluding external loans). Eliminate the budget deficit. Stabilize exchange rate. The new Minister of Finance had to act in a more favorable environment: industry was on the rise; the rapid process of railway construction continued; a number of positive developments were observed in agriculture; trade balance had a stable positive balance. Purposeful economic and financial policy led to the fact that on January 1, 1897. Russia's gold reserves reached 814 million rubles. Witte skillfully realized these advantages. Its main goal was to strengthen the monetary system of Russia - the supporting structure of a rapidly emerging unified national market.

At the end of the 19th century, there were 2 currencies in Russia: the silver ruble and credit notes. A penny was considered a bargaining chip and was used only in small payments. The exchange rate of the credit ruble was set by banks, and by the 1890s it averaged one and a half rubles for one silver ruble. The new currency reform was supposed to unify the silver and paper ruble, as well as to prevent further depreciation of banknotes, the issuance of which was already almost out of control.

The beginning of the monetary reform was preceded by a series of acts designed to reduce the volume of speculative transactions and weaken foreign exchange intervention. Speculation on the ruble had a huge scale. The specificity of speculation was that its object was primarily ruble cash. Rubles in suitcases were secretly and obviously taken abroad. June 13, 1893 banks were prohibited from even indirectly facilitating the game on the course. Persons guilty of concluding such transactions were subject to a fine of 5-10% of the transaction amount. A “statistical” (1 kopeck per 100 rubles) duty was introduced on the import and export of credit notes. For secret import or export, that is, without paying a fee, a fine of 25% of the smuggled amount was provided. Control over exchange operations in Russia was strengthened and a ban on the production of exchange transactions foreign brokers. Thanks to these decisions, exchange rate fluctuations began to decrease.

At the beginning of 1895 the Ministry of Finance of Russia buys at the Berlin stock exchange who played important role in speculation with Russian rubles, for huge amounts for those times, offered for a period of Russian rubles (at the rate of 219 marks for 100 rubles), a massive (30 million rubles) purchase of credit notes was carried out at low rate. When making settlements, they had to be repaid at a higher rate, which was very beneficial for Russia. The alarmed European traders realized that it was impossible to get the ruble by the deadline, and that they clearly missed the sale. Many of them were forced to turn to the Russian Ministry of Finance with a request to allow them to purchase the required amount of rubles. Witte graciously allowed, but broke the new price - 234 marks for 100 rubles. The buyers had to agree. The Russian treasury was significantly replenished as a result of this operation. There was no longer any need to fear serious attempts to play for the ruble's fall. Witte ensured that the exchange rate of the ruble "stayed" firmly enough at two-thirds of its gold parity.

Among the preparatory measures can be attributed to the conclusion of a customs union with Germany. In response to high duties on Russian grain exports, Witte passed a law through the State Council, according to which tariff rates were recognized as minimal only for those countries that adhered to the most favored nation treatment in relations with Russia. Germany did not adhere to such a regime, and its exports to Russia were subject to a duty at an increased rate. Germany was forced to make concessions. In 1894 a new trade agreement was concluded, beneficial to Russia.

The rapid growth of industry in the 1990s caused joint-stock banks, mainly those in St. Petersburg, to rush into a new area for them - lending and financing of industry. However, the merging of banks with industry at that time was still fragile. Russian sum valuable papers in 1900 exceeded 12 billion rubles. Slightly more than a quarter of this huge sum was accounted for by government loans concluded by the government for national needs, i.e. primarily for military needs. A third were government loans for the construction of railways, as well as shares and bonds of railway companies. Only 16% fell on shares and bonds of industrial enterprises. Mortgage securities (mortgage bonds of land banks) accounted for 21% of the total amount of Russian securities. 60% of it was inside the country and 40% - abroad. It should be emphasized that a huge number of mortgage-backed securities, placed almost entirely in Russia, diverted the funds of the domestic money market for lending mainly to landownership, lending that was almost exclusively unproductive in nature: the land was usually mortgaged by the landowners not to obtain funds for improving the economy, but for purely consumer needs.

In the 1990s, Russia saw a process of concentration of banking capital, merging of banks with industry, and strengthening of interbank ties. The Russian for Foreign Trade, the St. Petersburg International, the St. Petersburg Accounting and Loan, and the Russian Commercial and Industrial Bank begin to act in joint financing of industrial enterprises. The nineties are the period of the birth of Russian financial capital.

Under Witte, government control over private banks increased enormously. It is carried out through the State Bank and the Special Office for the credit part of the Ministry of Finance. The role of this division of the Ministry of Finance increased sharply in the late 1880s with the formation of the Foreign Department of the Credit Office. It began to prepare materials for the issuance of loans. They followed the position of the international money market, the financial and political press. The volume of duties of the Credit Office increased especially in the last decade of the 19th century, when Russia began to actively attract foreign capital for the modernization of industry. The functions of the Credit Office gradually expanded, and it turned into a "completely unique institution", combining "not only administrative, but also purely operational functions." “Along with the administrative tasks of state administration in the field of money management and credit,” the office turned out to concentrate “certain activities in issuing loans, buying currency and making settlements abroad, not only of the government, but also of numerous public institutions. The volume of operations carried out by the Credit Office exceeded hundreds of millions of rubles, i.е. exceeded the volume of operations of any banking institution.

The monetary reform of 1895-1897, carried out by Witte, was carried out in several stages and consisted of a number of measures aimed at establishing a solid gold content. Russian currency, ensuring the free exchange of banknotes for gold at a fixed rate, the introduction of gold coins into monetary circulation. The last task was difficult not so much in terms of its technical solution, but because of psychological factors. The fact is that although gold coins have been regularly minted in Russia since the time of Peter I, they practically did not participate in the internal cash flow, but were used by the population as treasures, or for external payments. This was facilitated by the practice of distributing gold coins by members of the imperial family as awards to distinguished military personnel (including ordinary soldiers) and officials. In the 80s - the first half of the 90s of the 19th century, gold coins actually began to participate in money circulation, but the law remained legally in force, according to which all transactions had to be made in silver.

The first step was to implement financial reform, which included strict tax policy in order to increase income state budget.

A decisive step towards gold circulation was the law approved by Nicholas II on May 8, 1895. It contained two main provisions: any written transactions permitted by law can be concluded with Russian gold coins; for such transactions, payment can be made either in gold coin or banknotes at the rate of gold on the day of payment. In the following months, the government took a number of measures aimed at approving the gold equivalent. Among them: permission for offices and branches of the State Bank to buy a gold coin at a certain rate, and capital ones - to sell and make payments at the same rate; then the rules for accepting a gold coin to the current account by the State Bank were introduced. Soon, the same operation will be introduced in private commercial banks, which have announced that they will accept gold for current accounts and for all obligations. In November 1895 the acceptance of gold coins by the cash desks of all government agencies and state railways was allowed. Despite these measures, the gold coin was very slowly established as a priority means of payment. This was due to the lack of habit among the population, and the obvious inconvenience of the gold coin for large payments and forwarding, since there was no correspondence between the common noun and market prices. Semi-imperials and imperials with the designation 5 rubles and 10 rubles circulated at 7 rubles. 50 kop. and 15 rubles, which constantly caused bewilderment and numerous abuses in the calculations. Demand for the gold coin was also constrained by fears that the State Bank would lower the exchange rate by administrative means, which could lead to financial losses. In an effort to dispel such fears, the State Bank announced on September 27, 1895 that it would buy and accept a gold coin at a price not lower than 7 rubles. 40 kop. for a semi-imperial, and in 1896 the purchase rate was set at 7 rubles. 50 kop. These decisions led to the stabilization of the ratio between the gold ruble and the credit ruble at a ratio of 1:1.5. To stabilize the ruble, the Ministry of Finance recognized the need to devalue the credit currency on the basis of monometallism. The parity between the paper ruble and the credit one was established not on the basis of a nominal designation, but in accordance with the real exchange rate.

Since the mid-1990s, in order to prepare the population for the circulation of paper banknotes exchangeable for gold, measures have been taken to increase the issuance of deposit metal receipts. The State Bank issued "deposits" to individuals in exchange for gold bullion, foreign gold coins and foreign banknotes to be exchanged for gold, receipts from gold mines and mines for gold, spending abroad paid for in gold. The St. Petersburg and Moscow offices of the State Bank made a free exchange of deposit metal receipts for gold 5-ruble coins. Deposit metal receipts were issued in denominations of 5; ten; 25; 30:50; 100; 500 and 1000 rubles. Basically, they had the same design as similar receipts issued in 1886. In settlements between individuals, these banknotes taken by mutual agreement of the parties.

The new monetary system, built on the principle of gold monometallism, included the following elements:

The ten-ruble gold coin of the new coinage was the main coin of Russia and legal tender. According to the law of 1885, minted gold coins were required to be accepted for all payments until they were withdrawn from circulation at a ratio of 1 ruble. = 1 rub. 50 kop. in a new minted gold coin.

The payment power of silver was limited to 50 rubles.

State credit notes had the force of legal tender and were included in the liabilities of the bank. Their exchange for gold was carried out at the rate of 1 rub. 50 kop. credit for 1 rub. in gold, or 66 2/3 kopecks in gold per credit ruble, which corresponded to the average exchange rate of the ruble and the ratio of the settlement balance that had developed in the years before the reform.

The issue of credit notes was carried out by the State Bank only for commercial transactions jar. Up to 1 billion rubles credit notes were backed by 50% gold, over 1 billion rubles. - fully.

All obligations under government and private loans concluded in metal rubles before this law remained unchanged, that is, they were payable in new rubles in one and a half times.

The first law "On the minting and issuance of gold coins" was signed by Nicholas II the day after the meeting - January 3, 1897. It included the following provisions:

gold imperials (the old denomination of 10 rubles), semi-imperials (5) are still in circulation. A new denomination is minted on them (respectively, 15 and 7.50), i.e. the devaluation of the ruble;

operations of the State Bank for the purchase and sale of gold have lost their temporary nature;

as monetary unit a gold ruble is set, containing 0.774235 g of gold (equal to 17.424 shares). Coins of 10 rubles and 5 rubles are full-fledged gold money, i.e. a five-ruble coin contained 5 spools of 17.424 = 87.12 shares of gold, and a ten-ruble coin contained 1 spool of 78.24 shares of gold (1 spool = 96 shares);

gold coins - legal tender without limiting the amount;

freedom of coinage (any bearer of 1 spool of 78.24 shares of gold received a 10-ruble coin from the state, transferring gold to the state for re-minting) - to ensure that a 10-ruble coin could not cost more than the metal contained in it;

tolerance in weight (2/1000 parts above or below the legal weight in a 10-ruble coin) and tolerance in assay (1/1000 parts above or below the legal standard), setting the weight limit at which the coin was recognized as full-weight (to guarantee the content of pure metal );

gold monometallism: full-fledged gold money and inferior silver and copper. This means that the silver and copper content in the corresponding coins, say in ruble coins, was less than what could be bought on the market for one ruble;

the monetary income, which was formed due to the inferiority of silver and copper money, was included in the list of state budget revenues. At the same time, there were strict restrictions on the issue of defective coins: the number of issued silver coins should not exceed established standard(3 rubles per person), and the Minister of Finance asked for permission to issue copper coins.

By the end of the 19th century, Russia had an extremely complex system of taxation. There were the following taxes:

· land tax

· Real estate tax

· Tax on money capital

· apartment tax

· Industrial tax.

The main scourge of all these taxes is not the taxation of the amount of income, but the form of ownership and the identity of the owner (depending on the guild, title, etc.). By the beginning of the twentieth century, these taxes brought the treasury about 7% of the total government revenue. The trade and industry of Russia were taxed on a very small scale. By the mid-nineties of the century before last, taxes on these industries amounted to about 3% of all budget revenues, although trade and industry had already become the core of economic development and revenues from these industries accounted for almost half of all budget revenues.

The results of the monetary reform became noticeable very quickly. The State Comptroller's report for 1897 stated: Judging by the reviews it has received everywhere abroad, there can be no doubt about its fruitful significance as proof of Russia's financial strength, which even our obvious ill-wishers have begun to recognize. The impact of the monetary reform within the country can be judged by the fact that the number of credit notes issued for public circulation decreased from January 1897 to May 1, 1898 by 221 million rubles (from 1121 to 900 million rubles), and in return for this, the commercial and industrial market within the country is saturated with gold and silver coins, with which more than 250 million rubles have already been put into circulation (including over 170 million rubles in gold). This fact testifies that the gold circulation is not only expanding its circle of distribution, but has already penetrated into the remote areas of our vast Fatherland, entering into the daily practice of the people.

1.3.ATTITUDE IN SOCIETY TO MONETARY REFORM AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE ECONOMY OF RUSSIA

The success of an undertaking unprecedented in the history of Russia was ensured by the undoubted and unequivocal support received by specific proposals and Witte's projects at the very top of the hierarchical pyramid. Without the patronage of Emperor Nicholas II, some of Witte's fundamental proposals could not materialize. The very idea of ​​strengthening the ruble by switching to the gold parity was primarily in the interests of industry: the reliability of the currency stimulated capital investment. For the agrarian sector, however, such a transformation did not promise any special benefits in the foreseeable future, and even vice versa: stabilization of the domestic currency, an increase in its exchange rate would inevitably lead to an increase in the cost of exports. The main products of Russian export from time immemorial have been products Agriculture, and the planned reform infringed on the interests of large noble landowners, who had long headed the corridors of power, having a significant impact on the course public policy.

The main provisions of the project were published on March 15, 1896 in the journal Novoye Vremya and gave a powerful impetus to discussions, behind which the positions of different classes and social groups of Russian society were clearly traced. If the main provisions of the project were approved in the Finance Committee, then in the State Council they met with almost unanimous rejection. In such a situation, Witte decided to bypass the State Council and turned directly to the king. “His Majesty fulfilled my request,” he wrote in his memoirs, “and gathered on January 2, 1897, the financial committee in a reinforced composition under his chairmanship. At this meeting, the fate of the financial reform was essentially decided, that is, it was decided to introduce in the Russian Empire metallic circulation based on gold".

When the forthcoming monetary reform was announced, protests began from various quarters. The stabilization of the ruble at the level of two-thirds was objected to from the most opposite points of view. Some said that this was a malicious bankruptcy, that the ruble could only be exchanged for gold at 100 for 100 - although over the past forty years all economic life has adapted to a new, lower rate. Others pointed to the desirability of introducing both a gold and a silver currency (bimetallism); still others argued that the reform was doomed to failure anyway and only threatened with the greatest upheavals; and some even denied its usefulness.

The activities of the Ministry of Finance became the target of fierce attacks from the conservative circles of society. Supporters of historical exclusivity and national identity launched a noisy campaign to discredit both S. Yu. Witte himself and his financial undertakings. Public passions reached their peak in 1896. Russian society, quite recently very far from economic interests, suddenly, with unprecedented fervour, plunged into lively discussions about the ways and methods of financial reorganization.

The entire reform of monetary circulation was designed for the future industrial development of Russia, and it served him. But the question inevitably arose of how the devaluation and free exchange of the ruble for gold would affect the internal economic activity and, first of all, the position of the main part of the subjects of the Russian crown in the near future. S. Yu. Witte believed (and his assumptions were completely justified) that the reorganization of financial circulation would not lead to any noticeable socio-economic perturbations. The currency conversion system affected mainly foreign economic activity, and the introduced ratio of metal and paper banknotes only consolidated the real situation. The way of life of the bulk of the population, its daily material and production support actually did not depend on the gold parity itself, nor on the nature of world monetary settlements. Russian peasants for the most part remained outside the system of the world money market, and prices within the empire were controlled by the state.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the gold unit prevailed in the composition of Russian money circulation, and by 1904 it accounted for almost 2/3 money supply. On January 1, 1900, the metal security accounted for 189% of the amount of credit notes, and the gold coin already accounted for 46.2% of the total monetary circulation.

The introduction of the gold currency strengthened public finance and stimulated economic development. At the end of the 19th century, in terms of growth in industrial production, Russia overtook all European countries. This was largely facilitated by a wide influx of foreign investment in the country's industry. Only during the ministry of S.Yu. Witte (1893-1903), their size reached a colossal size - 3 billion rubles in gold.

Thus, the end of the 19th century was characterized in Russia by the implementation of the largest financial reform, which qualitatively changed the position of the Russian monetary unit. The ruble has become one of the most stable currencies in the world. Reformations 1895-1897 were an integral part of a broad program of economic innovations in the 1990s. The reform contributed to Russia's integration into the world market system.

CHAPTER 2. THE PROJECTION OF THE WITTE REFORM ON MODERN RUSSIA

In Soviet Russia, the name Witte was forgotten literally until 1991. If he was mentioned in monographs on history, then with the prefix "reactionary". But in recent years, interest in the personality of S.Yu. Witte has grown incredibly high. When Vladimir Putin was asked: "What should be the prime minister of Russia?", he replied: "Such as Witte."

Interest in the figure of Sergei Yulievich Witte today is due to an involuntary comparison of the results of economic reforms of the 90s of the XX century and the implementation of reforms early XXI century with the transformations of the 90s of the XIX century, the success of which is largely due to their consistency, understanding national characteristics the historical path of Russia and the personal energy of the great reformer.

1 RUSSIAN FINANCIAL SYSTEM AND ECONOMY CURRENTLY

The financial policy of the state is a set of measures aimed at achieving the goals declared by public authorities<#"justify">Budget policy is a mirror reflecting all the pros and cons state jurisdiction affairs, the balance of interests of the state and society, regions and economic entities. The main goals of budgetary regulation are to ensure the growth of production volumes and incomes of citizens. In the absence of reforms, the only way to maintain a balanced budget remains to increase the tax burden and at the same time increase domestic debt countries, as observed in recent years.

In order to use the levers of budgetary regulation, stimulating the growth of production and providing equal opportunities for the subjects of the Federation to finance the minimum standard public services population, several conditions must be met. This is long term budgetary policy; a sound public debt management strategy; transition from the annual budget "horizon" to three-year planning and the replacement of the departmental method with the program-targeted one budget financing; competitive distribution of budget tasks and fixing them in relevant contracts with strict control by government departments. This also includes the anticipatory determination of the main, breakthrough areas for investing funds, which will "pull out" the economy as a whole.

The development of mechanisms for the implementation of the budget reform should be carried out simultaneously at the federal and regional levels. Today in federal law we are talking only about the federal budget and its expenditures. It is necessary to increase the role consolidated budget, half of the expenditure part of which remains outside budget system. Extrabudgetary social funds are also a channel for the territorial redistribution of public finances. The principles and criteria of this process are still out of control even on the part of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.

AT Russian Federation would be relevant social reforms, which directly depend on the country's budget, that is, on the redistribution of funds in the budget: this is the beginning pension reform caused by redistribution age structure of the population due to the decline in the birth rate in the 90s, the strengthening of the positions of non-state pension funds and consulting firms, also involved in pension savings, increasing the literacy of the able-bodied population and increasing their responsibility for their own future provision of pensions, including through legislation. It is also necessary to reorganize and financially inject into the healthcare sector - technical equipment public institutions healthcare, especially in the regions of the Russian Federation, control intended use budget funds. All these components are included in the National Project "Health" and the State Program "Health Development until 2020", which is formed according to all the rules and criteria of the program approach to management and is very specific, starting with the program of goals, objectives, structure, target indicators and ending with risk assessment .

The draft of the new law on education has been approved by the government and will soon be finalized and submitted to the State Duma. To implement the reform, it will be necessary to allocate an additional 16 billion rubles from federal budget in 2013, said Dmitry Medvedev. The funds will be used to pay salaries to teachers and lecturers, increase scholarships for students and other needs. One of the most anticipated issues is the reduction in the number of universities. According to the Prime Minister, the number of higher education institutions in the country exceeds all reasonable limits. The Unified State Examination was also criticized by the head of government. One of the most important tasks was the work in the direction of growth wages teaching staff in 2018.

Thus, in Russia at present, many areas of public importance can be reformed, modernized, reorganized to increase the country's competitiveness in the world market and improve the social life of the population of our country with a long history and great reformers, such as Peter I and Sergei Yulievich Witte.

CONCLUSION

The introduction of the gold currency strengthened public finances and stimulated economic development. At the end of the 19th century, in terms of growth in industrial production, Russia overtook all European countries. This was largely facilitated by a wide influx of foreign investment in the country's industry. Only during the ministry of S.Yu. Witte (1893-1903), their size reached a colossal size - 3 billion. rubles in gold. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the gold unit prevailed in the composition of Russian money circulation and by 1904. it accounted for almost 2/3 of the money supply. Russo-Japanese war and revolution 1905-1907. made adjustments to this trend, and since 1905. the issue of credit rubles began to increase again. However, until the First World War, Russia managed to keep intact the most important principle of currency reform: the free exchange of paper money for gold.

The turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, which became a turning point in the history of Russia, was marked by the collapse of the traditional agrarian-patriarchal society and the emergence of a new industrial one. This process was closely connected with the activities of the great reformer of the country S.Yu. Witte. Modernizing Russian economic structures, he sought to give the capitalism developing in the country a European look. Only in industrial development countries, Witte saw the path of her bourgeois progress, while he considered the industrial factor not as purely technical, but as an important transformative economic start and a social tool for stabilizing the political situation.

First of all, the study showed that the reforms of S.Yu. Witte were the practical implementation of the program of socio-economic modernization of Russia, and in this sense, one cannot fail to note their logical consistency and theoretical validity. Secondly, the considered reforms were of a systemic nature, they were closely interconnected and were subordinated to the main goal - the creation of a national Russian industry.

In particular, Witte completed the process of stabilization of the ruble begun by his predecessors and introduced gold money circulation in Russia. In this regard, the State Bank was reformed, which became the central issuing institution. The introduction of the gold standard ensured the stable position of the ruble and opened up opportunities for a wide attraction of foreign capital to Russia, both in the form of loans and investments.

S.Yu. Witte strove to make extensive use of the international money market. Simultaneously with the attraction of foreign capital, S.Yu. Witte took measures to accumulate internal resources. This goal was primarily served by the system of taxation. In 1898, a new trade tax was approved, which replenished state revenues through deductions from industrial enterprises. Indirect taxes have risen sharply. One of the most effective means of accumulating domestic resources was the wine monopoly, introduced in 1894. In order to develop domestic industry, Witte adhered to a protectionist system.

Under the influence of objectively existing factors of identity Russian history(natural-climatic, geopolitical, confessional and others) in Russia a specific, special social organization has developed and existed for centuries. One of its most characteristic features was that the state here was not a superstructure over civil society (as in Western countries), but a backbone, and sometimes even a creator of civil society institutions. The specificity of the Russian political system was that it either had a sacred character (and sometimes suppressed the already weak institutions of civil society), or, being ineffective, led to the Time of Troubles and the collapse of not only territorial, but also social ties. In Russia, the state, society, individual have never been divided (as in the West), they were mutually permeable, integral, conciliar. Statehood in Russia has always relied on the corporation of the service nobility (be it the nobility or the nomenklatura, the liberal bureaucracy or someone else). This type of social organization has always been extremely stable and, changing its forms, but not its essence, was recreated after every upheaval in Russian history.

Reforms in historical literature usually mean only those political decisions that are aimed at liberalization, greater or lesser limitation of power, separation of powers, transfer of one or another amount of authority to its various branches, involvement in public administration representative institutions and public organizations(i.e. "strengthening the power horizontal"). With this approach, counter-reforms always look like retaliatory measures of the authorities, which are of a protective, conservative nature.

The power of the first person in Russia has always been decisive. It also determined the fate of political reforms. From the first person (whether he was called emperor, general secretary or president) depended, if not everything, then very much in Russian reforms. Attempts to limit the power of the first person, expanding collegiate forms did not bring the desired result. Moreover, each such attempt led to a weakening of the power itself, and as a result, to disorganization, ending in even greater centralization and strong personal power. It is not surprising that now, according to the current Constitution, the president of the country has powers comparable to the power of the emperor at the beginning of the 20th century. And in some ways it surpasses them. For example, according to the Basic Laws of the Russian Empire of 1906, individual decrees of the emperor were not valid if the Duma did not approve them. If she was on vacation at that time, then the emperor's decree had to receive her approval within two months. Otherwise, it would lose its power. Decrees of the President of the country, as you know, cannot be canceled by anyone.

When carrying out reforms, it is extremely important that the population of the country has a clear idea of ​​their goals, stages and social consequences. At the beginning of the XX century. for this it was proposed to create a special Ministry of Ideology. As far as is known, plans for a similar structure were also discussed in the mid-1990s. But then, and now, these plans were not destined to come true.

The effectiveness of reforms, of course, depends on the extent to which the historical experience of our country will be used; how effective will the political system, the system of power; to what extent it will be possible to complement the political processes social change in the interests of the people. The current pride of the reformers is the increase in the short term of the country's gold and foreign exchange reserves from 12 billion dollars. up to 150 billion dollars quite justified (although the merit here is not only theirs, but also the global oil and gas price situation). But it should not lead to euphoria. After all, as long as these capitals themselves lie dead weight in overseas banks, and the domestic economy remains on the whole

competitive, the population of the country will never feel the effectiveness of reforms. This is all the more strange when, in the interests of petty savings, the share of already modest expenditures on education, health care, and science is being reduced from year to year in the country. At the same time, these industries are challenged to reach the global level. We are talking about those sectors through which a person can really feel the effectiveness of the ongoing reforms. This is all the more important because the very ideology of the reforms should and can only be understood by educated people. At one time, F. Laharpe noted that reforms in Russia without a serious increase in the educational level of the population are impossible and pointless. In recent years, the quality and level of domestic education has been steadily declining due to scarce funding.

When one talks about historical experience, its analysis can sometimes lead us to idealization of this experience, to attempts to copy it blindly. Therefore, we must not forget that the historical experience that is often heard today is the experience of tsarist Russia a hundred years ago, Russia heading towards the revolutionary upheavals of 1917. Lessons must also be drawn from this and conclusions drawn.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Budget message of the President of the Russian Federation D. Medvedev for 2012-2015.

Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation. - M., 2011

3. History of Russia from the beginning of the XVIII to the end of the XIX century. Ed. A.N. Sakharova, Moscow, AST, 1996

Muravyova L. A. Golden ruble S. Yu. Witte: (On monetary reform in Russia 1895-1898) / L. A. Muravyova // Money and credit. - 2003.

5. Witte S. Yu. The Most Submissive Report of the Minister of Finance // Library of Historical and Philosophical Literature [ Electronic resource] / Comp. N. N. Kudryakov.- 2004.- Access mode:

Witte S. Yu. (1849-1915). Selected memories. 1849-1911: in 2 volumes / S. Yu. Witte. - M. : Terra, 1997. - 352 p. - (Secrets of history in novels, stories and documents)

7. Zlobina A.A. Finance. - M.: MGIP, 2010

Report on results and main directions of activity for 2011-2013

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Witte's reforms of 1892-1903 were carried out in Russia in order to eliminate the backlog of industry from Western countries. Scholars often refer to these reforms as the industrialization of tsarist Russia. Their specificity was that the reforms covered all the main spheres of the state's life, allowing the economy to make a colossal leap. That is why today such a term as the "golden decade" of Russian industry is used.

Witte's reforms are characterized by the following activities:

• Increase in tax revenues. Tax revenues have increased by about 50%, but we are not talking about direct, but about indirect taxes. Indirect taxes this is the imposition of additional taxes on the sale of goods and services, which are borne by the seller and paid towards the state.
• Introduction of the wine monopoly in 1895. The sale of alcoholic beverages was declared a state monopoly, and only this item of income accounted for 28% of the budget of the Russian Empire. In money it is expressed approximately 500 million rubles a year.
• Gold backing Russian ruble. In 1897 S.Yu. Witte carried out a monetary reform, providing the ruble with gold. Banknotes were freely exchanged for gold bars, as a result of which the Russian economy and its currency became interesting for investment.
• Accelerated construction of railways. Approximately 2.7 thousand km of railway were built per year. This may seem like an insignificant aspect of the reform, but at that time it was very important for the state. Suffice it to say that in the war with Japan, one of the key factors in the defeat of Russia was the insufficient equipment of the railway, which made it difficult to move and move troops.
• Since 1899, restrictions on the import of foreign capital and the export of capital from Russia were lifted.
• In 1891, customs tariffs for the import of products were increased. It was a forced step that contributed to the support of local producers. It is thanks to this that the potential within the country has been created.

Brief table of reforms

Preparing reforms

Until 1892, Sergei Yulievich Witte served as Minister of Railways. In 1892, he moved to the post of Minister of Finance of the Russian Empire. At that time, it was the Minister of Finance who determined the entire economic policy of the country. Witte adhered to the ideas of a comprehensive transformation of the country's economy. His opponent was Plehve, who promoted the classical path of development. Alexander 3, realizing that at the current stage the economy needed real reforms and transformations, sided with Witte, appointing him as Minister of Finance, thereby completely entrusting this person with the formation of the country's economy.

The main task of the economic reforms of the late 19th century was to ensure that within 10 years Russia would catch up with the Western countries, and also gain a foothold in the markets of the Near, Middle and Far East.

Monetary reform and investment

Today we often talk about phenomenal economic indicators achieved by the Stalinist five-year plans, but their essence was almost completely borrowed from Witte's reforms. The only difference was that in the USSR, new enterprises did not become private property. Sergei Yulievich proposed to carry out the industrialization of the country in 10 years or in five years. The finances of the Russian Empire at that time were in a deplorable state. The main problem was high inflation, which was generated by payments to landlords, as well as continuous wars.

To solve this problem in 1897, Witte's monetary reform was carried out. The essence of this reform can be briefly described as follows - the Russian ruble was now backed by gold, or a gold standard was introduced. Thanks to this, investor confidence in the Russian ruble has increased. The state issued only the amount of money that was actually backed by gold. The banknote could be exchanged for gold at any time.

The results of Witte's monetary reform appeared very quickly. Already in 1898, significant amounts of capital began to be invested in Russia. Moreover, this capital was mainly foreign. Largely due to this capital, it became possible to carry out large-scale construction of railways throughout the country. The Trans-Siberian Railway and the Chinese Eastern Railway were built precisely thanks to Witte's reforms, and with foreign capital.

Foreign capital inflow

One of the effects of Witte's monetary reform and his economic policy was the influx of foreign capital into Russia. The total investment in Russian industry amounted to 2.3 billion rubles. The main countries that have invested in Russian economy late 19th early 20th century:

• France - 732 million
• United Kingdom - 507 million
• Germany - 442 million
• Belgium - 382 million
• USA - 178 million

There were both positives and negatives in foreign capital. The industry, built on Western money, was completely controlled by foreign owners who were interested in profit, but in no way development of Russia. The state, of course, controlled these enterprises, but operational decisions were all made locally. A striking example of what this leads to is the Lena massacre. Today, this topic is being speculated to accuse Nicholas 2 of harsh working conditions for workers, but in fact the enterprise was completely controlled by English industrialists, and it was their actions that led to a rebellion and execution of people in Russia.

Evaluation of reforms

In Russian society, Witte's reforms were perceived negatively, and by all people. The main critic of the economic policy pursued was Nicholas 2, who called the Minister of Finance a "republican". The result is a paradoxical situation. Representatives of the autocracy did not like Witte, calling him a republican or a person who supported an anti-Russian position, and the revolutionaries did not like Witte because he supported the autocracy. Which of these people was right? It is impossible to unequivocally answer this question, but it was the reforms of Sergei Yulievich that strengthened the positions of industrialists and capitalists in Russia. And this, in turn, was one of the reasons for the collapse of the Russian Empire.

Nevertheless, thanks to the measures taken, Russia has taken the 5th place in the world in terms of total industrial production.

Results of economic policy S.Yu. Witte

• The number of industrial enterprises has grown significantly. Just the country was about 40%. For example, there were 2 metallurgical plants in the Donbass, and 15 more were built during the reform period. Of these 15, 13 plants were built by foreigners.
• Production increased: oil 2.9 times, pig iron 3.7 times, steam locomotives 10 times, steel 7.2 times.
• In terms of industrial growth, Russia came out on top in the world.

The main emphasis was placed on the development of heavy industry by reducing the share of light industry. One of the problems was that the main enterprises were built in cities or within the city. This created the conditions under which the proletariat began to settle in industrial centers. The migration of people from the village to the city began, and it was these people who later played their role in the revolution.

S.Yu. Witte and management of the national economy

(to the 150th anniversary of the birth)

VADIM MARSHEV
professor at Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov

Sergei Yulievich Witte (1849 - 1915) was a prominent figure at the head of the system of state management of the economy in Russia. Having started his service after graduating from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of the Novorossiysk University (Odessa) from the position of a cashier at the Odessa state railway, he rose to its head, and then the Minister of Railways, the Minister of Finance and the Chairman of the Council of Ministers. S. Witte ended his career as a member of the State Council (1906-1915).

For 17 years (from 1889 to 1906) of being in leading government positions, S. Witte prepared and implemented more than 10 major economic reforms, as a result of which Russia made a leap in its economic and especially industrial reorganization and development.

Economic policy of S. Witte

Being in senior leadership positions, S. Witte made the main emphasis in his activities on strengthening the role of the state in managing the national economy, especially in critical situations. In general, his economic policy was based on two most important elements - protectionism and attraction of foreign capital.

If the first was not original, but, in essence, continued the ideas of I. Vyshnegradsky 1 , then the second demanded sharp changes in views from S. Witte, which was facilitated by the successful implementation of the monetary reform developed by him. Back in 1893, already Minister of Finance (from 1892 to 1903), he spoke very cautiously about attracting foreign capital, expressing his fear that “Russian enterprise”, despite the customs fence, might not be able to overcome rivalry of "foreign enterprise". But by the end of the 1990s, S. Witte began to advocate an intensive attraction of foreign capital.

Witte's main idea was the desire to involve Russia in the world economy, to open wide paths for industrial development countries, to establish a solid monetary system is a guarantee of attracting capital to industrial activity and expanding the scope of credit relations with Europe.

On the development of domestic industry

In March 1899, at a meeting of ministers chaired by the tsar, S. Witte's report "On the need to establish and then steadily adhere to a certain program of the empire's commercial and industrial policy" was discussed, which contained his views on the prospects for Russia's economic development. In his report, he argued that the aforementioned policy should be carried out “according to a certain plan, with strict consistency and systematicity,” because only thanks to this, “the fundamental not only economic, but also political task” can be solved - the creation of one’s own national industry.

Without denying that the population had huge financial difficulties that arose in connection with the introduction of the customs tariff of 1891, and at the same time pointing to the low quality of domestic products and the general underdevelopment of the national industry, S. Witte saw the solution to all problems in “capitals, knowledge and entrepreneurship” . First of all - in capitals, because without them "there is no knowledge and no enterprise." Russia is poor in capital, therefore it is necessary to look for them abroad. At the same time, he insisted on maintaining the customs tariff of 1891, as well as on the fact that “at least until 1904” there were no restrictions on the inflow of foreign capital.

By the beginning of the XX century. Witte's policy took on a specific and purposeful character - within about 10 years to catch up with the more industrialized countries of Europe, to take a strong position in the markets of the countries of the Near, Middle and Far East. The same means were offered - customs protection of the domestic industry and encouragement of export; attracting foreign capital; accumulation of resources through indirect taxation, state wine monopoly and state railways.

S. Witte critically assessed the achievements of Russia, recognizing it as an agricultural country. In this regard, he wrote: “under the current system of political and economic international relations, an agricultural country that does not have its own industry, sufficiently developed to satisfy the main needs of the population with the products of domestic labor, cannot regard its power as unshakable; without its own industry, it cannot achieve real economic independence, and the experience of all peoples clearly shows that only economically independent peoples are able to fully exercise their political power. England, Germany, the United States, before becoming influential powers in international politics, planted and developed industry in their countries with strenuous efforts and a comprehensive system of measures.

According to N. Bunge 2 , none of the finance ministers of post-reform Russia used the means of state influence on the country's economy as extensively as S. Witte. However, he did not neglect the experience of private entrepreneurship. It had an effect that for more than 10 years he had been practically implementing and evaluating the possibilities of the private economy, holding various leadership positions in joint stock company southwestern railroads. As the manager of the southwestern roads, S. Witte led a 30,000-strong team and brought this private economy from unprofitable to profitable.

About working with personnel

Already there, his abilities to work with personnel were revealed. He managed to create such a working mood and so skillfully select people that the road began to work “miracles”. All its employees stood up for each other and were ready to do everything possible and impossible for the road. Moreover, it was worth S. Witte in any department to meet a more or less outstanding person, as he immediately arranged it for himself. Having taken the highest state position, he used his knowledge and experience (and, above all, his experience of working with people) to make the country's state-owned railway industry profitable.

From the very first days of his activity as Minister of Railways, and soon as Minister of Finance, S. Witte began to attract specialists known to him from the private sector as employees, forming, as it is now fashionable to say, a team of specialists and managers. I had to overcome the established bureaucratic canons of the system of chinoproizvodstva. Fortunately, in the 1980s, the question of its abolition was seriously discussed in Russia, and negative assessments were made of this system, which gave rise to massive “legalized” incompetence and, as a result, fettered the development of the country's productive forces.

At that time, in the interests of attracting specialists, a number of departments began to be replenished with persons moving from private service to the state, and therefore either had no ranks or were in ranks that did not correspond to their position. In this matter, S. Witte had personal experience. Being the manager of the southwestern roads at the time of his appointment as director of the department of railway affairs of the Ministry of Finance, he had the rank of only IX class (titular councilor), and immediately received the rank of IV class (actual state councilor). True, this case was unique, purely personalized, since the translation was carried out by decision of Alexander III.

Due to the urgent need for professionals and competent personnel, on the initiative of S. Witte, laws were issued that established, contrary to the “Charter on the Civil Service”, new rules for determining public service officials of the department of the Ministry of Finance, which allowed him to legally implement his personnel policy. So, he invited specialists in the field of tariff business, mainly from the department of southwestern roads, who often did not have any ranks and even the right to join the civil service.

According to contemporaries and researchers, this method of selecting officials was successful and, moreover, in all likelihood, the first attempt in the history of the Russian bureaucracy to introduce employees of business organizations into the middle bureaucracy.

Having become the Minister of Finance, S. Witte at the end of 1894 submitted a proposal to the State Council, asking for permission to hire all departments of the ministry up to class V inclusive (the rank of State Councilor) of persons who did not have the right to be appointed to the service, but subject to availability them higher education. This contributed to a significant increase in the composition of public institutions of people with higher education - from 1893 to 1896 their number increased by 64% with a general increase in staff by 6%. Assessing the personnel policy and real activities of S. Witte, one should not forget that all of them were carried out with the aim of making state intervention in the country's economic life more effective.

Here is how S. Witte himself evaluates his qualities as a leader: peculiarities. Persons who do not know how to choose people, who do not have a nose for people who cannot appreciate their abilities and shortcomings, it seems to me, could not be good administrators and manage a great deal. As for me, I can say that I have this scent, maybe natural, very developed. I have always been able to choose people, and no matter what position I hold, and wherever I am, everywhere there is a large galaxy of talented and capable workers. So it was on the southwestern railways. This was especially evident in the broader field of my activity, i.e. when I was finance minister for 10.5 years. All subsequent finance ministers who came after me, such as Pleske, Shipov, Kokovtsov 3 - all these were my former employees, whom I pulled out, so to speak. Also among the members of the State Council there is a whole series of members who were formerly my collaborators in various fields. At present, the top positions in the Treasury are all occupied by former employees of mine, and the same can be said for private companies.”

About training

Significant merits S. Witte and in the creation of a system of commercial and technical education. He was able to put this matter of paramount state importance on a solid foundation, removing from it all traces of “spiritual conservative guardianship” and opening wide scope for private initiative. Only the list of educational institutions opened under the auspices of the Department of Trade of the Ministry of Finance shows how much he did for public education.

At the beginning, S. Witte, in order to initiate the activity of Russian industrialists and entrepreneurs in the establishment and management of commercial schools, passed through the State Council the Regulations on Commercial Education. As a result, representatives of private business began to willingly give money for this, and in 4-5 years, 73 commercial schools were opened practically without spending state funds, the Stroganov School of Technical Drawing was reorganized, and several industrial art schools were established. The 1897 law on rural handicraft training workshops should also be credited to S. Witte.

Having developed a network of secondary commercial education, S. Witte began a campaign to establish the first commercial and technical higher educational institutions in Russia, “which would contain various departments of human knowledge, but would have the organization not of technical schools, but of universities.” Under his leadership, the charter of the St. Petersburg Polytechnic Institute was developed and adopted by the State Council, and then this and two other institutes (in Kyiv and Warsaw) were opened.

Other examples of S. Witte's successes can be cited, but these examples speak convincingly of his outstanding state economic activity.

1 I. Vyshnegradsky was Minister of Finance from 1887 to 1892.
2 N. Bunge was Minister of Finance from 1881 to 1886.
3 E. Pleske was Minister of Finance from 1903 to 1904, I. Shipov from 1905 to 1906, V. Kokovtsov from 1904 to 1905 and from 1906 to 1914.

Slice control work on history. Option 1.

1. Years of reign of Nicholas II:

1) 1881 - 1894 3) 1896 - 1905

2) 1894 - 1917 4) 1896 - 1918

2. An integral part of the Stolypin agrarian reform was:

1) strengthening the rural community

2) implementation of resettlement policy

3) introduction of a temporarily obligated state

4) liquidation of landownership

3. The first monopolies in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century existed in the form of:

1) cartels and trusts 2) trading companies and joint-stock companies

3) syndicates and cartels 4) peasant communities and cooperatives

4. What event started the revolution of 1905-1907?

1) from the all-Russian October political strike

2) from the armed uprising in Moscow

3) from "Bloody Sunday"

5. The dual power system existed in the country in:

6. Go to industrial society called:

1) industrialization 2) modernization

3) industrial revolution 4) civilization

7. The counter-revolutionary rebellion in August 1917 with the aim of establishing a military dictatorship in the country was called

1) Kornilov region 2) Stolypin region

3) dual power 4) Arakcheevshchina

8. Establish a correspondence between the name of the political party and its leader:

9. Timeline of the Civil War

10. The course towards complete collectivization meant:

1) resettlement of workers in the countryside

2) transfer of all land to state farms

3) association of individual farmers into collective farms

4) the creation of large peasant farms

11. A radical change during the Great Patriotic War was achieved as a result of the defeat of the fascist troops:

1) near Moscow 2) in Belarus and Crimea

3) in East Prussia 4) near Stalingrad and on the Kursk Bulge

12. The second front during the Second World War was opened in:

13. The accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant occurred in:

1) 1987 2) 1985

3) 1986 4) 1988

14. Russia declared its sovereignty:

15. Conducted in Russia in the early 1990s. transfer or sale to private ownership of a number of state enterprises called:

1) nationalization 2) privatization

3) secularization 4) denationalization

Slice control work on history. Option 2.

1. Nicholas II to the question all-Russian census about the occupation he answered: "The owner of the Russian land." This response showed that

1) The Russian state was the largest in the world

2) in Russia there was an autocratic form of government

3) Russian rulers were engaged in charity

4) representatives of only Russian nationality lived in Russia

2. Which of the following events happened before the others?

3) "Bloody Sunday" 4) the creation of the RSDLP

3. What is the chronological framework of the Russo-Japanese War?

1) 1902-1903 2) 1904-1905

3) 1905-1907 4) 1905 - 1906

4. The main military event of 1916

1) "Brusilovsky breakthrough"

2) Germany's declaration of war on Russia

3) the defeat of the 1st and 2nd Russian armies in East Prussia

4) the occupation by German troops of the territory of Galicia, Belarus, Ukraine

5. When, according to the old style, the Winter Palace was stormed and members of the Provisional Government were arrested?

6. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was created in

1) 1918 2) 1922

3) 1924 4) 1930

7. Set match:

8. World War II started:

9. Failure in the early 1990s from state regulation most prices are called:

1) privatization 2) nationalization

3) inflation 4) liberalization

10. main reason mass famine in Ukraine and the North Caucasus in 1932-1933:

1) crop failure 2) sabotage of the kulaks

3) forcible seizure of grain from the peasants by the state 4) loss of livestock

11. The largest tank battle of World War II took place:

1) under the Ardennes 2) near Prokhorovka

3) near the city of Kalach 4) during the Berlin operation

12. The beginning of the Cold War was marked by:

1) the US nuclear bombing of Japanese cities 2) the formation of the NATO bloc

3) the speech of W. Churchill in the city of Fulton 4) the formation of 2 German states

13. During the "perestroika" in the second half of the 80s, it was assumed:

1) to carry out a radical breakdown of the Soviet economic system and power structures

2) reanimate with the help of cost accounting Soviet economy while maintaining the power of the CPSU

3) make a radical turn towards the market and democracy

4) catch up and overtake America

14. The term "perestroika" is used to denote the period:

1) 1985-1991 2) 1987-1990

3) 1990 - to the present 4) tenure of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin

15. Which of the named periods of national history refers to the concept of "stagnation":

1) the first post-war decade 2) the period of the "thaw"

3) "era of stagnation" 4) years of perestroika

Slice control work on history. Option 3.

1. To increase the inflow of foreign capital, S.Yu. Witte

1) carried out a monetary reform

2) abandoned the policy of protectionism

3) allowed free circulation of foreign money in Russia

4) transferred the defense industry into the hands of foreign entrepreneurs

2. What class of Russia occupied a dominant position in the country's politics?

1) merchants 2) nobility

3) clergy 4) Cossacks

3. Who was the leader of the Menshevik Party?

3) V.M. Chernov 4) P.N. Milyukov

4. What year of the First World War was called the year of the "Great Retreat"?

1) 1913 2) 1914

3) 1915 4) 1916

1) transfer of landowners' lands to peasants

2) convocation of the State Duma

3) the adoption of a constitution in Russia

4) abolished democratic freedoms

6. After the February Revolution, Russia was proclaimed

1) federation 2) republic of Soviets

3) constitutional monarchy 4) republic

7. The government, formed from representatives of various parties, is called

1) temporary 2) coalition

3) constituent 4) compromise

8. During the NEP greatest development received:

1) heavy industry 2) agriculture

3) trade 4) science

1) I.V. Stalin 2) G.K. Zhukov

3) S.K. Timoshenko 4) S.M. Budyonny

10. In 1940, the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations for:

1) assistance to Republican Spain

2) aggression against Finland

3) a secret agreement with Germany on the division of spheres of influence

4) clash with Japan in the Far East

11. Yuri Gagarin flew into space:

12. Establish a correspondence between the names of the leaders of the USSR and the periods of their stay in power

13. Soviet troops were introduced into Afghanistan in:

1) 1976 2) 1978

3) 1979 4) 1980

14. The agreement on the formation of the CIS was signed in 1991:

1) Russia and Kazakhstan

2) Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan

3) all the republics of the USSR, except for the Baltic states

4) Russia and Belarus

15. The system of international relations, characterized by a balance of approximately equal forces of two competing blocs of states, is called:

1) monopolar 3) bipolar

2) global 4) international

Answers.

Option 1.

1. 2.

2. 2.

3. 3

4. 3.

5. 2

6. 2.

7. 1.

8. 1G 2V 3A 4B 5D

9. 1.

10. 3.

11. 4.

12. 2.

13. 3.

14. 2.

15. 2.

Option 2.

1. 2.

2. 4.

3. 2.

4. 1.

5. 1.

6. 2.

7. 1AVJ 2BGE

8. 3.

9. 4.

10. 3.

11. 2.

12. 3.

13. 2.

14. 1.

15. 3.

Option 3.

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 2.

4. 3.

5. 2.

6. 4.

7. 2.

8. 3.

9. 1.

10. 2.

11. 1.

12. 1G 2B 3A 4V

13. 3.

14. 2.

Witte's monetary reform

The monetary reform of 1897, which is called the Witte reform, was the locomotive that pulled the industry of Russia, thereby accelerating the modernization of the state.

The need for monetary reform in Russia was dictated by the development of industry. It was necessary to ensure the stability of the Russian ruble. This would help to attract foreign investment, which was needed by the industry due to the lack of domestic capital. The monetary reform initiated by Witte was recognized as quite successful, although it had some drawbacks.

Prerequisites for the reform

Russian capitalism in the last quarter of the 19th - early 20th centuries. entered the imperialist stage, which was in line with global trends. In the 90s of the XIX century. in the Russian economy, monopoly associations - cartels and syndicates - become relevant, joint-stock commercial banks arise. But for the sustainable development of the economy, a stable currency was needed, which would prevent the depreciation of money capital. An attempt to strengthen the credit ruble by withdrawing "extra" paper money from circulation failed. And by the end of the XIX century. the necessity of transition to gold currency became more and more clear.

The first on this path was Great Britain, which introduced the gold standard in 1816. Then Sweden, Germany, Norway, Denmark, France, Holland, Italy, Greece and Belgium switched to gold circulation.

Russia was part of the world market, so there was a need to create the same monetary system as in other European countries. The ruble was a fully convertible currency, but the sale of foreign currency for rubles and the unlimited export of credit rubles abroad hindered the development of foreign trade and reduced budget revenues. This prevented the inflow of foreign capital into the country, as future profits in gold currency became uncertain, and investments became risky. Thus, the main reason for the monetary reform of 1895-97. became the interest of the government in the development of Russia's foreign economic relations.

Nikolaev ruble after Witte's monetary reform

What does the term "gold standard" mean?

This is such a monetary system when gold is recognized and used as the only monetary commodity and the universal equivalent of values. This standard is not subject to inflation. In the event of a decline in economic activity, gold coins went out of circulation and settled with the population, and when the need for money expanded, gold was put back into circulation. Gold money retained its face value. This simplified the payment of foreign economic transactions and contributed to the development of world trade.

Five rubles in gold. Obverse

Five rubles in gold. Reverse

How did society react to the new monetary system?

Differently. The nobility and landowners were especially opposed. If this was good for the new commercial and industrial bourgeoisie of Russia and foreign partners, then the instability of money made it possible for the domestic bourgeoisie to increase incomes, in particular, from the export of bread.

Preparing for reform

A lot of work has been done to prepare the reform since the 80s of the XIX century. Minister of Finance N.Kh. Bunge and his successor I.A. Vyshnegradsky. The purpose of the preparation is to replace the inflationary circulation of fiat money with the gold standard system. It was necessary not only to return to metallic circulation instead of paper money, but also to change the basis of the monetary system: to move from the silver standard to the gold one.

It was necessary to achieve a positive outcome of the balance of payments and the accumulation of gold reserves (by increasing exports, restricting imports, pursuing a protectionist policy, and concluding external loans). Eliminate the budget deficit. Stabilize the exchange rate.

Purposeful economic and financial policy led to the fact that on January 1, 1897 Russia's gold reserves reached 814 million rubles.

S.Yu. Witte stopped practicing under I.A. Vyshnegradsky speculative exchange game on the credit ruble. The State Bank at the expense of its own and treasury gold and foreign exchange reserves fully satisfied the demand for foreign currency. His predecessors in this post were financiers N.Kh. Bunge and I.A. Vyshnegradsky made attempts to streamline the monetary system, the main flaw of which was an excess of credit and paper stock, the devaluation of the ruble and its extreme instability.

As a result, it was possible to reduce the scale of speculation. Stabilization market rate credit ruble in 1893-1895. created the prerequisites for a monetary reform: fixing the exchange rate based on the exchange of the credit ruble for gold according to the actual ratio between them.

The prerequisites for the monetary reform were: gold reserves, a stabilized exchange rate, an active trade balance, a balanced budget, non-interference of the king and the State Council in the work of the Ministry of Finance and the State Bank.

Nicholas II

On May 8, 1895, Nicholas II approved a law according to which all sorts of legal transactions could be concluded in Russian gold currency and payment for such transactions can be made in gold coins or credit notes at the rate of gold on the day of payment.

But the gold coin very slowly became a priority means of payment. The State Bank even took the next step: on September 27, 1895, it announced that it would buy and accept a gold coin at a price not lower than 7 rubles. 40 kop. for a semi-imperial, and in 1896 the purchase rate was set at 7 rubles. 50 kop. These decisions led to the stabilization of the ratio between the gold ruble and the credit ruble at a ratio of 1:1.5. In January 1897, it was decided to introduce a metal circulation based on gold in the Russian Empire. On January 3, 1897, Nicholas II signed the law "On minting and issuing gold coins into circulation."

New monetary system

On January 3 (15), 1897, Russia switched to the gold standard. Gold coins of 5 and 10 rubles were minted and entered into circulation, as well as imperials (15 rubles) and semi-imperials (7.5 rubles). Credit notes of a new type were freely exchanged for gold.

However, many preferred paper money: it was easier to store them.

The convertibility of the ruble strengthened credit and encouraged foreign investment, economic development countries. The initiator and conductor of the monetary reform of 1897 was S. Yu Witte, the Minister of Finance of Russia in 1892-1903.

The study of their experience, sober calculation, unbending will, professional competence, knowledge of the mechanisms of power gave S.Yu. Witte the opportunity to develop a reform project and gain the support of Emperor Nicholas II. The reform was prepared in an atmosphere of secrecy, since it was assumed that it would not be supported by broad sections of society, especially the court circles and the local nobility: the stabilization of the rudder met the objectives of the development of industry, but led to a fall in prices for agricultural products.

The Ministry of Finance and its head were subjected to sharp indignation, attacks, and accusations of wanting to impoverish the country. Critical articles, malicious feuilletons, pamphlets and caricatures appeared in the press.

Witte caricature

Most of the members of the State Council opposed the reform, which forced Witte to submit it to the discretion of the Finance Committee, where he had many associates. Under the chairmanship of Emperor Nicholas II, the decision to adopt the monetary reform was made by an expanded meeting of the Finance Committee.

Significance of the monetary reform of 1897

It stabilized the ruble exchange rate and streamlined monetary circulation, created a solid base for domestic entrepreneurship, and strengthened Russia's position in the international market.

Sergei Yulievich Witte (1849-1915)

S.Yu. Witte. Lithograph by A. Münster

Statesman. He served as Minister of Communications (1892), Minister of Finance (1892-1903), Chairman of the Committee of Ministers (1903-1906), Chairman of the Council of Ministers (1905-1906). Member of the State Council. Count (since 1905). Active Privy Councillor.

Origin - from the Baltic Germans. Mother - from the Russian princely family of Dolgorukov.

He graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of the Novorossiysk University (Odessa) in 1870, received the degree of candidate of physical and mathematical sciences.

He gave up his scientific career and went to work in the office of the Odessa governor, then he was engaged in the commercial operation of the operation of railways and then constantly remains in this area, becoming in 1892 the Minister of Railways, and at the end of this year - the Minister of Finance. He held this post for 11 years. Accelerated sprawling construction Trans-Siberian Railway, considering it an important stage in the economic progress of the country.

Witte's undoubted merit is his monetary reform. As a result, Russia for the period up to 1914 received stable currency backed by gold. This contributed to strengthening investment activity and increased inflow of foreign capital.

He opposed the consolidation of the privileged position of the nobility, believing that Russia's prospects are connected with the development of industry.

With his participation, labor legislation was developed.

With his active participation, state reforms were carried out, including the creation State Duma, the transformation of the State Council, the introduction of electoral legislation and editing the Basic State Laws of the Russian Empire.

Assisted in the construction of the CER.

Developed a reform program, implemented by P. A. Stolypin.

He was a supporter of the accelerated development of industry and the development of capitalism. Carried out reform of the taxation of industry.

Contributed to the introduction of the state "wine monopoly" on alcohol.

He concluded a peace treaty with Japan, according to which half of Sakhalin Island passed to Japan.

He showed outstanding diplomatic skills (the Alliance Treaty with China, the conclusion of the Portsmouth Peace with Japan, the trade agreement with Germany).

He was buried at the Lazarevsky cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra.