Types of economic systems. Mechanisms of coordination in different economic systems

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Economic systems- this is a set of interrelated economic elements that form a certain integrity, the economic structure of society, the unity of relations that develop regarding the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods.

As a result, 4 types of economic systems are distinguished:

1. traditional economy;

2. administrative-command economy;

3. market economy;

4.mixed economy.

Traditional economy- a closed system of subsistence farming, characterized by manual labor, routine technologies, a multistructural structure in the economy, a low level of development of productive forces, an active role of the state in the economy, etc.

Administrative command economy- an economy with dominant state ownership, state monopoly, where commodity-money relations are formal, the movement of resources is carried out by the administrative center, rigid centralism of the entire economy.

Market economy- an economy with a predominance of private property, limited state intervention in economic processes and a market mechanism for coordination.

mixed economy- has several lines of shaping, that is, a combination of private and public sectors, a combination of the market and state regulation, a combination of capitalism and the socialization of life. In addition, there are various elements in a mixed economy, for example: joint-stock company, social partnership, contractual relations, etc.

Economic theory considers two different modes of coordination: spontaneous (spontaneous) and hierarchical (centralized).

In spontaneous orders information, required by manufacturers and consumers, is transmitted through price signals. An increase or decrease in the price of resources and the benefits produced with their help prompt economic entities in which direction to act, i.e. what, how and for whom to produce. In any economic system, the producer must calculate his costs and benefits. However, the cost-benefit ratio can only be calculated using price mechanism. This mechanism coordinates the economic choice of people. Such a mechanism or order is called spontaneous (spontaneous). Spontaneous order arose naturally in the course of the development of human civilization. The market is the spontaneous order.

There is another way to obtain information about what, how and for whom to produce. This is a system of orders and instructions, going from top to bottom, from a certain center to the direct producer. Such a system is called hierarchy. An example of a hierarchy is a primitive community, where the leader determines everything and everyone. Hierarchy is also a command and administrative system (the state with the help of the State Planning Commission). In the form of a hierarchy, the enterprise also carries out its activities. The hierarchy is based not on price signals, but on the power of the leader or central government agency.

In reality, there is a coexistence of spontaneous orders and hierarchies.

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As a result, 4 types of economic systems are distinguished:

1. traditional economy;

2. administrative-command economy;

3. market economy;

4.mixed economy.

Market economy- an economy with a predominance of private property, limited state intervention in economic processes and a market mechanism for coordination.

mixed economy- has several lines of shaping, that is, a combination of the private and public sectors, a combination of the market and state regulation, a combination of capitalism and the socialization of life. In addition, there are various elements in a mixed economy, for example: a joint-stock company, social partnership, contractual relations, etc.

Economic theory considers two different modes of coordination: spontaneous (spontaneous) and hierarchical (centralized).

In spontaneous orders the information needed by producers and consumers is conveyed by price signals. An increase or decrease in the price of resources and the benefits produced with their help prompt economic entities in which direction to act, i.e. what, how and for whom to produce. In any economic system, the producer must calculate his costs and benefits. However, the cost-benefit ratio can only be calculated using price mechanism. This mechanism coordinates the economic choice of people. Such a mechanism or order is called spontaneous (spontaneous). Spontaneous order arose naturally in the course of the development of human civilization. The market is the spontaneous order.

In reality, there is a coexistence of spontaneous orders and hierarchies.

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An analysis of the problem of distribution of goods brings us to the problem of the interaction of economic entities. After each economic entity has assessed its benefits and costs and made a choice, society is faced with the need to coordinate the economic activities of individual entities, which includes the need to:

Coordinate manufacturers' decisions among themselves;

Coordinate consumer decisions;

Align decisions about production and consumption in general. This need is generated by many reasons, including the specialization of economic entities in certain types of economic activity.

Depending on how the problem of distribution of goods is solved, and, consequently, the coordination of economic activity, certain economic systems are distinguished. It is obvious that the differences in the ways of distributing goods and coordinating economic activity that characterize the features of a given economic system are determined by the differences in the institutions and institutional structures that regulate economic behavior, which were discussed above.

Planned economic system of command economy (on the example of the USSR)

In countries with an administrative-command system, the solution of general economic problems had its own specific features. In accordance with the prevailing ideological attitudes, the task of determining the volume and structure of products was considered too serious and responsible to transfer its decision to the direct producers themselves - industrial enterprises, state farms and collective farms.

Centralized distribution of material goods, labor and financial resources was carried out without the participation of direct producers and consumers, in accordance with pre-selected public goals and criteria, on the basis of central planning. A significant part of the resources, in accordance with the prevailing ideological guidelines, was directed to the development of the military-industrial complex.

The distribution of the created products among the participants in the production was strictly regulated by the central authorities by means of the widely used tariff system, as well as centrally approved norms of funds to the fund wages. This led to the prevalence of an egalitarian approach to wages. Main features:

State ownership of virtually all economic resources;

Strong monopolization and bureaucratization of the economy;

Centralized, directive economic planning as the basis of the economic mechanism.

The main features of the economic mechanism:

Direct management of all enterprises from a single center;

The state has full control over the production and distribution of products;

The state apparatus manages economic activity with the help of predominantly administrative-command methods.

This type of economic system is typical for Cuba, North Korea, Albania, etc.

Separately, it is necessary to say about the mechanism for the adoption of economic plans in the command-administrative system. The plan is adopted at the highest forum of the ruling political party and in the highest legislative body of the country, which sanctifies the merging of the political, executive and legislative structures of society and is one of the main signs of totalitarianism. After that, control over the implementation of the plan, which has taken the form of a law, can be carried out on the basis of administrative-criminal and party responsibility.

The directive task of the plan is accompanied by the allocation of free resources for the production unit and wage funds determined by the administrative center of the country. The common center determines not only the amount of allocated resources and wage funds, but also the range of goods. An elementary analysis shows that it is impossible to do this even approximately, at least for a small group of producers. And if the country has a large production potential, then the very idea of prescriptive planning makes one think about the absurdity of such plans.

The leading center is undivided, i.e. absolute monopoly owner of any products manufactured at the enterprises. Similar economic practice in the absence of competition leads to only one result - producers can work, regardless of the quality of the products.

Manufacturers and wholesale consumers of industrial products are economically and administratively connected with each other. Consumers are deprived of the right to choose, they receive, but do not buy (although they pay money), only what is allocated to them by the manufacturer at the will of the center. The principle of matching supply and demand has been replaced by the will of the center, which materializes the political and ideological decisions made.

In the administrative system, the inertia of a patriarchal society is partly overcome by a break in the unambiguous connection between the economic subject and the norms of his behavior, although the role of the pressure of ideology is still very large. The rules and parameters of economic behavior and the corresponding allocation of benefits are determined by the influence of the commanding (managing) subsystem, which is, first of all, the state, no matter what various forms it may take. The correspondence of the behavior of the economic subject to the controlling influences is ensured primarily by non-economic means, which, in addition to ideology, include the apparatus of coercion. Such coordination of economic activity provides opportunities for significant development through a corresponding change in the norms of economic behavior, as well as the concentration of resources under the control of the control subsystem. Its weak point is the lack of internal incentives economic activity from economic entities subject to external commands and limited by them in their actions. Therefore, periods of rapid but short-lived development alternate in such systems with states of stagnation and decline.

In a command economy, an enterprise operates under a soft budget constraint. First, a socialist enterprise can transfer part of its resources to consumers - after all, such a system is dominated by monopoly firms, or, as they say, the supplier dictates prices. Secondly, enterprises systematically receive tax incentives and tax deferrals. Thirdly, gratuitous state aid(subsidies, subsidies, debt cancellation, etc.) Fourthly, loans are issued even when there are no guarantees of their return. Fifth, external financial investments are often carried out not to develop production, but to cover emerging financial difficulties, and all this is at the expense of the state treasury. Use borrowed funds through the market valuable papers impossible due to the absence of such under socialism.

command market economy consumer

Mechanisms and methods of regulation in the conditions of overcoming the crisis Author unknown

4.1. Organization of economic coordination in the global economy

Today, competition, as the principle of economic coordination in the industrial era, has been replaced by a system of economic coordination designed to ensure the coordination of interests of economic entities. Since the market sector is not able to regulate the social and environmental spheres, these “failures” of the market are coordinated by the state in accordance with established laws and regulations. But, in turn, the state, with its policy to correct the “failures” of the market, can cause new adverse consequences and problems, which leads to “failures” of the policy. The measures taken by individual states to overcome the financial and economic crises showed the world these "failures". One of these measures was to increase the liquidity of the banking sector of the economies, which caused a negative reaction in all other sectors.

Separated from a single whole, independent spheres in the economy do not exist. This unified whole in subsistence economy is realized by the mind of the leader, and in large-scale industrial world- pretending economic order(in the terminology of W. Eucken) or the rules of the game, principles in modern sound. For this reason, any measure of economic policy turns out to be rational only within the framework of the total economic order in which the economic process takes place. In order for this economic order to be sufficient and rationally regulate the overall economic process, it is necessary that all separately taken forms of order complement each other, regardless of whether we are talking about state-established forms, namely, those related to trade, price and credit policy, or about forms that have already become familiar. Therefore, each private order, or economic environment, must be considered as a link in the overall economic order or a structural element of the economic (market) environment. This state of affairs reflected the stage of development of countries in the 1950s. At present, all national economies are intertwined with various cooperative (corporate) relationships, forming a global economic system.

The principle of economic coordination of competition in a market environment causes scientific disputes to this day, determined by various scientific schools. But all scientists agree on one thing - there is no economic development without competition. That the mechanism of competition contains the forces of self-destruction, like J. Schumpeter, was confirmed by A. Rich, who considered competition to be the principle of coordination of activities put forward by the real market economy of the 1980s: “ It's about on the preservation of such competition, which ensures the receipt of profit as a result of active entrepreneurial activity which takes into account the interests of all, but which effectively prevents the extraction of income, due not to entrepreneurial activity, but to the power of fashion, the market, objectively aimed at curbing competition or even completely excluding it from economic activity. His conclusions are consistent with the Pareto optimum: no one's well-being can be improved without worsening the well-being of someone else. Pareto's proposed criterion of well-being means a situation where some people win, but no one loses.

The social market economy is a liberal concept that differs from classical liberalism in the principle of economic competition, according to W. Eucken's ordoliberalism, when an economic order with framework planning guarantees competition that brings the market economy closer to a model of perfect competition, excluding the possibility of establishing power over the market by monopolies and cartels. But its social orientation must be ensured by targeted intervention from outside, which is in the nature of regulation by the state economic policy, correcting the “failures” of the market.

Human economic activity is determined by various goals and interests. If the goal of a profit-oriented economy is income for the sake of personal or collective enrichment, then this motive becomes the dominant structural principle. There are factors of objective necessity and coercion, the source of which lies not in the rational structure economic activity as such, but in the dominance of the enrichment motive and in the corresponding economic mechanism: “Then the competition in a market economy from the stimulus and regulator economic production and consumption easily degenerates into aggressive, unrestrained competition, the decisive factor of which is not ability and perseverance, but, above all, economic dominance in the market, which favors the formation of blocs. Thus, a system of coercion arises, which individual subjects of the economy are not able to avoid without exposing themselves to the risk of economic damage or even catastrophe.

Very often this system of coercion is perceived as an objective regularity, although, in most cases, it is nothing more than the sum of habits, rules, agreements that can be changed. Business coercion may be due to certain value orientations that underlie the economic structure and policy, when changing which economic coercion weakens or is eliminated. In fact, such coercion reflects internal contradictions that serve as a source of the progressive development of society and reflect a systematic approach on a dialectical basis. A. Rich believes that: “the system of coordination of a market economy only to a small extent satisfies the requirements of full competition; the probability of its actual existence under the current technical and economic conditions is equally small. This does not at all mean, as is often asserted, that competition has generally exhausted itself as a principle of economic coordination. After all, even in the limiting case, in the presence of an absolute monopoly, when there are no direct competitors, competition persists, at least within the limited budget of the consumer.

Modern competition is primarily a struggle for technical leadership, for priority in opening up new markets and in transforming old ones, the desire, as accurately as possible, to guess the direction of changes in consumer tastes and preferences and embody them as much as possible in their products. This is a competition of a special type - "innovative" competition, the main task of which is not to oust the opponent from the positions already occupied by him, but to try to get ahead of him in something new, more promising. Therefore, F. Hayek proposed such a definition of competition as a process by which people receive and transfer knowledge. It only leads to a better use of the abilities and knowledge of other procedures, how best to use the specialized knowledge scattered among millions.

The value of competition, in his opinion, lies precisely in the fact that, being a discovery procedure, it is unpredictable. Otherwise, there would be no need for it. Further development of these views of F. Hayek was carried out by T. Sakaya, who drew attention to the fact that competitors give their products new form created by knowledge of value and concluded: “The inevitable consequence of such competition will be the emergence of a system that will provide an increasing diversification of products along with a tendency to contain the costs associated with their development. Such intense competition is likely to create conditions under which the "boom" in the sale of a popular product or technical innovation will become shorter and shorter. Based on this assumption, it can be concluded that the life cycle consumer product.

In fact, the expansion of goods from China showed the development of the opposite trend - the imposition of counterfeit goods from the world's leading manufacturers on the whole world. The institutional mechanism for smoothing this trend has not yet been developed again for the same reason as the implementation of the plan of V. Eucken - because of the infringement of the interests of the world and industry elites. Since the struggle in this case is impossible, it is necessary to carry out scientific research on the coordination of interests and the prevention of economic power in the developing branches of information technology, communications, astronautics and some others.

P. Drucker, back in 1964, also wrote about the meaning of knowledge when neither results nor resources exist within the business itself: “Business can be defined as a process that turns external resources, namely knowledge, into external results - economic values” . The following regularity can be traced in the modern economy. The more diverse a certain product is on the market, the more difficult it is to replace it with a competing product and, therefore, the greater the power of their producer over the market. A so-called supply-side economy arises, when only minor details can be modified, and homogeneous goods presented on the market as a whole give the impression of their heterogeneity. This competition is called substitution competition.

The fact that competition, as a principle of economic coordination, has not exhausted itself is confirmed from the point of view of a post-industrial society, when the service sector makes up more than half of economic activity, where monopolization is extremely difficult. The development of the Russian market economy on a competitive basis consists in creating institutional conditions for achieving competitiveness by market entities. The starting point in theoretical studies on institutional conditions are the works of M. Porter, who in the 1980s characterized the competitive advantages of countries and the context of enterprises (institutional conditions).

In his research, he proved that the emergence of a national environment in which companies are born and learn to compete is due to four components of the country's competitive advantages (the “diamond” rule): the presence in the country of the factors of production necessary to compete in this industry; state of demand for domestic market; the presence in the country of supplier industries or other related industries that are internationally competitive; the level of competition and the conditions for creating an organization and managing companies that are specific to a given country.

According to Porter, the context of the activities of enterprises (institutional conditions) is a social, political and institutional infrastructure that includes many elements, such as laws, rules, codes and procedures for resolving conflicts, determining responsibility, defining ownership, delineating the boundaries of property rights. It is also necessary to form a widely held belief that these rules are indeed the rules that govern economic life. For this to happen, a functioning public administration is needed. The market is not a substitute for the state, it is a supplement, without the state, or other mechanism of centralized coordination, the market cannot work.

In Russia, the formation of a market environment on a competitive basis began in the mid-1990s through the creation of institutions and institutional conditions. Analyzing the context (institutional conditions) of activity Russian enterprises, it is necessary to identify industries in which it is possible to produce competitive products. These are the so-called points of growth of the domestic economy, which include high-tech industries - power engineering, aircraft and space systems, military-industrial complex, heavy special machine tool building, telecommunications, computer industry, software. It is also necessary to take into account the development of the modern technological revolution, which includes five main components of the new technological order - Information Technology, synthetic materials, biotechnology, new energy sources and nanotechnology.

I.M. Kirzner, because it does not replace the role of the entrepreneur. He focused not on the analysis of equilibrium, but on understanding the functioning of the market as a process. He recognizes the entrepreneur as the driving force of the entire market process, noting that the exclusion of the entrepreneurial element is common to all models of competition. In our opinion, the entrepreneurial element is the managerial aspect of the system of competitive relations. Back in 1921, F. Knight identified differences in the managerial function - to make decisions and the entrepreneurial function - to bear responsibility. Based on this, we can talk about a managerial economy in which management tasks related to the fulfillment of an entrepreneurial goal are implemented. The tasks of such management include the creation of institutional conditions.

The existence of some monopolies is unavoidable, since the duplication of facilities such as a pipeline, a power line or a research clinic would lead to unjustified costs. The cost of attracting additional resources would exceed the potential benefit from the presence of competition. In such situations, the main role is played by the regulator, designed to ensure that the object is available to everyone at a reasonable price. However, regulators are not omnipresent or omniscient. Their own monopoly on power is not always used fairly. In addition to "failures" of the market, there are "failures" of policy.

In a socially oriented model of the economy, the state establishes the formal rules and norms necessary to ensure the fulfillment of the set goals based on increasing the efficiency of production and the competitiveness of goods and services. Although such norms and rules exist in all models of the state. In the Keynesian model, crisis situations State intervention is deemed necessary. But the allocation of the coordination aspect of institutions as a fundamental one, in comparison with the distributive aspect, is the methodological basis of the system of economic coordination of interfirm relations developed by us.

We are interested in the mechanism of coordination of economic activity as a management structure (“governance structures”) in the concept of O. Williamson, which he identifies with the concepts of “economic institutions”. This mechanism reflects, in our opinion, the dominance of organizational and managerial relations.

The exaggeration of the logic of the market, as an absolute principle of coordination in society, means limiting the logic of the coexistence of people (the ethical idea of rationality) by the economic logic of a mutually beneficial exchange of goods. In this case, the research methodology used is based on two assumptions: economic determinism and reductionism. The first is based on the exclusivity of economic rationality due to the conditions of market competition. Reductionism in economics comes from the definition of a market that works for the benefit of all, caring for the common good. The same systemic rationality, but with normative content.

For example, in Russia, instead of adapting the market to social relations, these relations themselves are radically adjusted to the requirements of the market. Relations between people are reduced to exchange relations, which leads to the development of the idea of the efficiency of a market economy into the ideology of a total market society.

The current economic crisis has shown the mechanism of our system of economic coordination at the global level. The essence of the mechanism of the economic coordination system, in our opinion, is based on the identified three types of economic coordination (centralized, decentralized and global). We concluded that the mechanism of competition (self-regulating market) was replaced by a system of economic coordination of the activities of market entities. All elements of this system are interconnected, and each type of economic coordination is separate from common system can not exist at the present time, as demonstrated by the current crisis.

Centralized coordination by the government provides a competitive environment (the so-called "rules of the game"). Market entities operate in a certain environment that allows them to achieve competitiveness, taking into account current regulations and rules set by the state depending on the purpose of development (centralized coordination). It should be noted that when A. Marshall analyzed the impact of the external environment on the organization of production, he spoke about the role of competition and cooperation in the development of the economy. Our understanding of cooperation lies in the fact that it allows us to coordinate the interests of business and the goals of the development of society. The system that implements the role of cooperation in a competitive environment is the system of economic coordination under study. W. Eucken proposed for post-war Germany in the transition from command to market economy two constitutive principles: the policy of the state is aimed at dissolving or limiting economic power groups; the political and economic activity of the state is aimed at creating forms of the economic environment, and not at regulating the economic process.

Eucken complained that if the economic and social power groups in the state have already taken strong positions and gained state privileges, then it is difficult to achieve their weakening or dissolution. But at the same time, he draws an optimistic conclusion: “However, history provides a lot of examples showing that this can be achieved within the framework of the confrontation between power groups and decisive state leadership.”

Decentralized coordination in the existing competitive environment ensures competitiveness. The history of economic development has shown that insufficient coordination manifests itself in a market economy due to the formation of power over the market by monopolies, oligopolies and groups with their own interests. As development trends show, monopolies and oligopolies, other formal and informal integrated structures, call into question the use of competition as a principle of self-organization, decentralized coordination in the market.

The mechanism of decentralized coordination of the activities of market entities (microeconomics) cannot replace macroeconomics and create conditions for development. Therefore, decentralized and centralized coordination constitute a system. The basis for highlighting the mechanism of decentralized coordination is the study of the concept of “internal (intra-company) organization” (“internal organization”) by F. Knight, which helps to emphasize the specifics of the tasks of the company as a non-market (administrative) mechanism of economic coordination. The decentralized coordination mechanism includes corporate planning (including cooperation in integrated structures), management, control, effective management state property.

We present these mechanisms in Fig. 4.1.

Rice. 4.1. Decentralized and centralized coordination mechanism

Global coordination through the inclusiveness (inclusion) of economic agents ensures the formation of world norms and rules of business. The main condition for perfect competition (the ideal of reforming the Russian economy) is that the market price is formed under the influence of aggregate demand and suggestions from all participants. The structure of communication between market entities - the market structure - is such that no one individually can influence the price. But since the competitive market since the time of A. Smith has lost the ability to self-regulate due to the increasing concentration of production and capital in new forms, the competition mechanism is being replaced by other systems.

In a global strategy, choices must be made because of the many ways to compete: where to place activities and how to coordinate them. The principles of global coordination that allow companies to gain competitive advantages through a global strategy were highlighted by M. Porter. The mechanism of global economic coordination is presented in Table. 4.1.

Table 4.1. Global Economic Coordination Mechanism

The market and its infrastructure are manifested through institutions: the monetary system, commodity exchanges, convertibility of currencies, etc. At present, these institutions have acquired, in the main, a global character. The table shows that the mechanism of global economic coordination is associated with obtaining competitive advantages. Global coordination ensures the formation of world norms and rules of business through the inclusiveness (involvement) of economic agents, which manifest themselves in modern world, as the relationship between the center and the periphery in network spatial structures. This conclusion is made on the basis of the substantiation of the network society by M. Castells (1996), who, using numerous examples, proved that the dominant processes and functions in our societies are determined by the configuration of relationships in networks and between networks.

In our opinion, a new era has begun, characterized by the fourth stage in the evolution of the principle of coordination in the economy. The first stage was the so-called "invisible hand" of Smith's market coordination and was expressed in the reduction of mass production costs in vertically specialized markets coordinated by the market. industrial enterprises. Alfred Chandler (1977) called the second stage the visible hand of hierarchical coordination using the organizational innovations of the US management team. The third stage is solving the problem by improving internal organization firms, not productivity (reducing costs). This position contradicts the notion that developed in the 1990s in the United States and Great Britain about the economy as an object of central government demand management policy.

The fourth stage we propose is based not on obtaining competitive advantages by reducing costs (the first and second stages), or obtaining strategic advantages through continuous improvement of the production process and product (the third stage), but by using an economic coordination system in which the mechanism of coordinating business interests is implemented. and development goals of society. Based on the identified principles and mechanisms of economic coordination (centralized, decentralized and global), we concluded that the mechanism of competition (self-regulating market) was replaced by a system of economic coordination. Centralized coordination by the government provides a competitive environment (the so-called "rules of the game"). Decentralized coordination in the existing competitive environment ensures competitiveness. Global coordination ensures the formation of world norms and rules of business.

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coordination mechanism is a system of relations that allows producers and consumers to make decisions in the production, distribution, exchange, and consumption of goods. The Coordination Mechanism poses five fundamental questions to producers and consumers and provides information on how to address them: (a) To what extent should the available resources be used? b) What goods and services can be produced? c) how to produce them? d) to whom should this product be distributed? f) Is the system able to adapt to changes in consumer tastes, in the structure of available resources and in production technology?

A competitive market system is able to bring changes in consumer tastes to the attention of resource providers and entrepreneurs and thus promote appropriate changes in the distribution of resources in the economy. Prices driven by supply and demand, consumer sovereignty, and producer incomes force firms to adopt the most efficient technology. The main mechanism of control in a market economy is competition - freedom of exchange and access to exchange. It favors the emergence of the identity of personal and public interests, forming with an “invisible hand” incentives for the efficient use of scarce resources.

The main economic advantage of the market system lies in its ability to constantly stimulate the improvement of production efficiency.

Competition leads to efficiency because in deciding how much of a particular good to buy, people equate the marginal (incremental) utility they get from consuming an additional unit of output to the marginal (incremental) cost of purchasing an additional unit of good, which is the price at which they pay, and firms, when deciding how much to sell, equate the price they receive with their marginal (extra) cost of producing each additional unit of the good. Thus, the marginal utility of consuming an extra unit equals the marginal cost.

The failures of the market mechanism of coordination lie in the impossibility through the price system to provide information about the market for investments in a country, region, industry, firm, about collective needs, external benefits and costs, and environmental needs. The market mechanism of coordination leads to unequal distribution of income and instability, it does not guarantee full employment and a stable price level.

14.3. Functions of the state in a market economy

State is a group of individuals that has two characteristic features. They are elected by the population and have some exclusive rights (to make decisions about tax collection, criminal punishment, border protection, etc.).

The state plays a threefold role in a market economy. Firstly, it protects the property rights and interests of the partners in the transaction, fixed in the contract of sale or other contracts. Secondly, it itself acts as an entrepreneur - it sells, buys in order to make a profit. Third, it compensates for market failure.

Market failures include failure of competition, failure of the market to respond to public goods, ineffectiveness of the competitive mechanism in the event of externalities, incompleteness of individual markets, imperfection of information, occasional high unemployment and equipment downtime, income inequality, discrepancies in consumer decisions from optimal ones regarding the use of so-called mandatory goods.

Failure of competition manifests itself in cases of a small volume of market transactions, the growth of the company due to economies of scale, monopoly pricing.

public goods- these are goods that have the properties of accessibility, free, indivisibility, impossibility to restrict access to use. For example, national defense. The market does not represent a public good either at all or in sufficient society.

The inefficiency of the competitive mechanism when an externality occurs, it manifests itself in the inability of the market to respond to losses or gains from a transaction from third parties. For example, another fisherman starting to fish in a pond may reduce the number of fish that other fishermen could catch.

Incomplete markets are cases where private markets fail to provide society with goods and services even when individuals are willing to pay a sufficient price. These are cases of insurance and loans in very large amounts.

imperfection of information- a common phenomenon of the market system. Efficiency requires that information be distributed free of charge, or, more precisely, the only payment would be such that would cover the real costs of information transfer. The private market often reduces the supply of information.

Markets have been unable to provide full employment. And this is the strongest impressive evidence of the imperfection of the market.

In a market economy, the rich have much more money than the poor. Therefore, a market economy allocates resources for the production of fine luxury goods for the rich at the expense of resources for the production of fine necessities for the poor.

Divergence of consumer decisions from optimal regarding the use of so-called must-have goods, it manifests itself when consumers make “bad decisions”, for example, they buy tobacco, a lot of sweets, do not use seat belts.

The view that state decision-making is preferable because the state knows that it best expresses the interests of the people, even better than they themselves understand, is called paternalism. Goods, the use of which is regulated by the state, are called compulsory goods.

Compensation for market failure is the main motive for the state's activity in a market economy. The state and its administration is a public good. We all benefit from a better, more efficient, more responsive state. And it is difficult and undesirable to exclude anyone from enjoying the benefits coming from a better state.

The failure of the state consists in insufficient awareness, limited control over the response of the private sector, natural consequences of the functioning of political institutions in democratic communities 30

In accordance with the two types of organizations, there are two main mechanisms for providing information and coordinating decisions: the plan and the market. A centralized organization is associated with a plan, a decentralized organization with a market. However, in reality, in a number of countries, their combination is also taking shape, for example, an indicative system in France. In a planned economy, which is based on a centralized organization, economic activity is carried out according to instructions and directives developed by the highest planning bodies (the Planning Committee, the State Planning Commission, and other unified planning centers). They are brought to lower organizations, which are obliged to ensure the implementation of the plan. Consumer preferences are taken into account, but to a small extent. In this regard, a certain system of incentives and sanctions is being developed to encourage the implementation of directives or condemn participants for refusing to implement them. Other mechanisms in a centralized organization are excluded. This process is called directive planning.
In a market economy based on a decentralized organization, preference is given to the market. Accordingly, resource allocation decisions are made under the influence of supply and demand. Moreover, the "supreme consumer power" belongs to the buyers. If consumer sovereignty prevails in the market, it is the buyers who decide what to produce. However, in its pure form, consumer priority does not exist, since decision-making is influenced both by state regulation measures at the government level and by large companies.
With an indicative system, the market is the main decision-making tool. Along with this, an indicative plan is used, which determines the general and sectoral trends in the development of the economy. The indicative plan does not provide instructions and directives for economic units. They are free to make decisions as they see fit.

More on the topic Mechanisms for providing information and coordinating decisions: plan and market.:

3.1. economic organization as a mechanism for the formal coordination of factors of production
3.3 Methods of coordination economic life: traditions, team, market. Natural and commodity economy.

The market mechanism is a mechanism for setting prices and allocating resources, the interaction of market entities regarding the establishment of prices, the volume of production and sale of goods. The main elements of the market mechanism are demand, supply, price and competition.

Another, simpler, definition says that the market mechanism is a mechanism for the relationship of the main elements of the market: demand, supply and price.

Demand is an umbrella term that describes the actual and potential buyers of goods. Demand can be viewed as a form of manifestation of the needs of people provided with cash equivalent. Demand does not express the entire set of needs, but only that part of it, which is supported by the purchasing power of people, i.e. cash equivalent.

Demand, being a solvent need, in practice can take different kinds:

· Irregular - Demand based on seasonal, hourly demand (eg, light traffic during the day, congestion during peak hours).

Irrational - demand for goods that are unhealthy or antisocial (cigarettes, drugs, firearms).

· Negative - demand, when most of the market does not like the product or service (vaccinations, medical operations).

· Latent - Demand that occurs when many consumers want something but cannot satisfy it because there are not enough goods and services on the market (harmless cigarettes, safe residential areas, an environmentally friendly car).

· Falling demand is a constant phenomenon (attendance of museums, theaters, etc. decreases).

There are also realized, unsatisfied, emerging, hype, prestigious, impulsive and other types of demand.

The market mechanism allows you to satisfy only those needs that are expressed through demand. In addition to them, there are also needs in society that cannot be transformed into demand. These primarily include the benefits and services of collective use, which in economics called public goods (public order, national defense, public administration etc.). At the same time, in a society with a developed market economy, the predominant part of the needs is satisfied through demand.

Supply is an umbrella term used to describe the behavior of actual and potential producers (sellers) of goods.

Sometimes a supply is defined as a set of goods with certain prices that are on the market (or on the way) and which producers can or intend to sell (definition by V. Vidyapin and G. Zhuravleva).

Price - the monetary expression of the cost (value) of the goods. The value of the price of a commodity depends on the value (value) of the commodity itself, as well as on the ratio of supply and demand. Prices are set under the influence of a series economic laws, first of all, the law of value, according to which prices are based on social necessary costs labor. The law of supply and demand influences the price. The mechanism of its action on the price is manifested when there is a discrepancy between the supply and demand of goods in the sphere of exchange.

The peculiarity of the market mechanism is that each of its elements is closely related to the price. It is its main tool, a tool for coordinating and adapting supply and demand to each other. The price of a product is a guideline on the basis of which entrepreneurs and consumers make their choice of what product to produce, what product to purchase. Prices carry information about the state of the market for consumers and for producers.

Competition - rivalry, rivalry, the struggle between manufacturers, suppliers of goods and services for the most profitable terms production and marketing. It acts as a form of interaction between market entities and a mechanism for regulating proportions, contributes to maximizing profits and, on this basis, expanding the scale of production.

All elements of the market mechanism do not exist in isolation, but interact. Their interaction is a market mechanism. It is clear that demand is inextricably linked with supply, and both of them depend on the price level. Competition affects demand, supply and price levels. Thus, all elements of the market mechanism are in a single system.

The law of demand. Demand curve. demand factors. Elasticity of demand

Demand is characterized by a scale that reflects the willingness of buyers in a given period of time to purchase goods at each of the prices offered on the market. At the same time, the volume of demand and the price of demand are important.

Demand is the quantity of a good that consumers are willing to buy. The bid price is the maximum price that buyers are willing to pay for a given quantity of a product.

There is a certain correlation between the market price of a commodity and the quantity demanded. The dependence of the volume of demand on prices is established by the law of demand.

The law of demand establishes an inverse relationship between prices and the quantity of goods that will be purchased at any given price.

The inverse relationship is explained by the following main reasons:

lower prices increase the number of buyers;

price cut expands purchasing power buyers;

Saturation of the market leads to a decrease in the utility of additional units of the product, so buyers are willing to buy it only at lower prices.

Thus, subject to the invariance of other factors, an increase in the price of a product leads to a corresponding decrease in the quantity demanded, and a decrease in price, on the contrary, causes an increase in the quantity demanded.

The law of demand has a graphical interpretation in the form of a demand curve. The most important property of the demand curve is its downward (decreasing) character.

The law of supply. supply curve. supply factors. Supply elasticity

Supply, like demand, is characterized by a scale. It represents the different quantities of a good that a producer is willing to produce and sell at any given price in a given time period.

The main indicators of supply are the value (volume) of supply and the offer price. The quantity (volume) of supply is the quantity of goods that sellers are willing to sell. The bid price is the minimum price at which sellers are willing to sell a given quantity of goods.

The dependence of the magnitude (volume) of supply on prices is fixed by the law of supply. The law of supply is formulated in the following way: the value (volume) of the goods offered is directly dependent on the unit price of this product. The amount (volume) of supply increases with an increase in price and falls with its decrease.

Thus, the law of supply expresses the relationship between market prices and the quantity of goods or services that producers are willing to offer. This relationship between price and supply is due to two main reasons. Firstly, the higher the price, the greater the seller's revenue and profit, i.e. there is an incentive for him to increase production. Secondly, at a high price, new interested manufacturers appear, offering their goods for profit.

Mechanisms and methods of regulation in the conditions of overcoming the crisis Author unknown

4.1. Organization of economic coordination in the global economy

Separated from a single whole, independent spheres in the economy do not exist. This unified whole in the subsistence economy is realized by the mind of the leader, and in the large industrial world it is implemented by the economic order (in the terminology of V. Eucken) or the rules of the game, principles in modern sound. For this reason, any measure of economic policy turns out to be rational only within the framework of the total economic order in which the economic process takes place. In order for this economic order to be sufficient and rationally regulate the overall economic process, it is necessary that all separately taken forms of order complement each other, regardless of whether we are talking about state-established forms, namely, those related to trade, price and credit policy, or about forms that have already become familiar. Therefore, each private order, or economic environment, must be considered as a link in the overall economic order or a structural element of the economic (market) environment. This state of affairs reflected the stage of development of countries in the 1950s. At present, all national economies are intertwined with various cooperative (corporate) relationships, forming a global economic system.

The principle of economic coordination of competition in a market environment causes scientific disputes to this day, determined by various scientific schools. But all scientists agree on one thing - there is no economic development without competition. That the mechanism of competition contains the forces of self-destruction, like J. Schumpeter, was confirmed by A. Rich, who considered competition to be the principle of coordination of activities put forward by the real market economy of the 1980s: “We are talking about maintaining such competition, which ensures profit as the result of active entrepreneurial activity that takes into account the interests of everyone, but which effectively prevents the extraction of income, which is not due to entrepreneurial activity, but to the power of fashion, the market, objectively aimed at curbing competition or even completely excluding it from economic activity. His conclusions are consistent with the Pareto optimum: no one's well-being can be improved without worsening the well-being of someone else. Pareto's proposed criterion of well-being means a situation where some people win, but no one loses.

The social market economy is a liberal concept that differs from classical liberalism in the principle of economic competition, according to W. Eucken's ordoliberalism, when an economic order with framework planning guarantees competition that brings the market economy closer to a perfect competition model, excluding the possibility of establishing power over the market by monopolies and cartels. But its social orientation must be ensured by targeted intervention from outside, which is in the nature of regulation by the state economic policy, correcting the “failures” of the market.

Human economic activity is determined by various goals and interests. If the goal of a profit-oriented economy is income for the sake of personal or collective enrichment, then this motive becomes the dominant structural principle. Factors of objective necessity and coercion arise, the source of which lies not in the rational structure of economic activity as such, but in the dominance of the enrichment motive and in the economic mechanism corresponding to it: “Then competition in a market economy from a stimulus and regulator of economic production and consumption easily degenerates into an aggressive , unbridled competition, the decisive factor of which is not ability and perseverance, but, above all, economic dominance in the market, which favors the formation of blocs. Thus, a system of coercion arises, which individual subjects of the economy are not able to avoid without exposing themselves to the risk of economic damage or even catastrophe.

Modern competition is primarily a struggle for technical leadership, for priority in opening up new markets and in transforming old ones, the desire, as accurately as possible, to guess the direction of changes in consumer tastes and preferences and embody them as much as possible in their products. This is a special type of competition - "innovative" competition, the main task of which is not to oust the opponent from the positions he has already occupied, but to try to get ahead of him in something new, more promising. Therefore, F. Hayek proposed such a definition of competition as a process by which people receive and transfer knowledge. It only leads to a better use of the abilities and knowledge of other procedures, how best to use the specialized knowledge scattered among millions.

The value of competition, in his opinion, lies precisely in the fact that, being a discovery procedure, it is unpredictable. Otherwise, there would be no need for it. Further development of these views of F. Hayek was carried out by T. Sakaya, who drew attention to the competitors giving their products a new form of value created by knowledge and made the following conclusion: contain the costs associated with their development. Such intense competition is likely to create conditions under which the "boom" in the sale of a popular product or technical innovation will become shorter and shorter. Based on this assumption, we can conclude that the life cycle of a consumer product is shortened.

In his research, he proved that the emergence of a national environment in which companies are born and learn to compete is due to four components of the country's competitive advantages (the “diamond” rule): the presence in the country of the factors of production necessary to compete in this industry; the state of demand in the domestic market; the presence in the country of supplier industries or other related industries that are internationally competitive; the level of competition and the conditions for creating an organization and managing companies that are specific to a given country.

In Russia, the formation of a market environment on a competitive basis began in the mid-1990s through the creation of institutions and institutional conditions. Analyzing the context (institutional conditions) of the activities of Russian enterprises, it is necessary to identify industries in which it is possible to produce competitive products. These are the so-called points of growth of the domestic economy, which include high-tech industries - power engineering, aircraft and space systems, military-industrial complex, heavy special machine tool building, telecommunications, computer industry, software. It is also necessary to take into account the development of the modern technological revolution, which includes five main components of the new technological order - information technology, synthetic materials, biotechnology, new energy sources and nanotechnology.

I.M. Kirzner because it does not replace the role of the entrepreneur. He focused not on the analysis of equilibrium, but on understanding the functioning of the market as a process. He recognizes the entrepreneur as the driving force of the entire market process, noting that the exclusion of the entrepreneurial element is common to all models of competition. In our opinion, the entrepreneurial element is the managerial aspect of the system of competitive relations. Back in 1921, F. Knight identified differences in the managerial function - to make decisions and the entrepreneurial function - to bear responsibility. Based on this, we can talk about a managerial economy in which management tasks related to the fulfillment of an entrepreneurial goal are implemented. The tasks of such management include the creation of institutional conditions.

In a socially oriented model of the economy, the state establishes the formal rules and norms necessary to ensure the fulfillment of the set goals based on increasing the efficiency of production and the competitiveness of goods and services. Although such norms and rules exist in all models of the state. In the Keynesian model, state intervention is considered necessary in crisis situations. But the allocation of the coordination aspect of institutions as a fundamental one, in comparison with the distributive aspect, is the methodological basis of the system of economic coordination of inter-firm relations developed by us.

The current economic crisis has shown the mechanism of our system of economic coordination at the global level. The essence of the mechanism of the economic coordination system, in our opinion, is based on the identified three types of economic coordination (centralized, decentralized and global). We concluded that the mechanism of competition (self-regulating market) was replaced by a system of economic coordination of the activities of market entities. All elements of this system are interconnected, and each type of economic coordination cannot currently exist separately from the general system, which has been demonstrated by the current crisis.

Centralized coordination by the government provides a competitive environment (the so-called "rules of the game"). Market entities operate in a certain environment that allows them to achieve competitiveness, taking into account the existing norms and rules established by the state depending on the development goal (centralized coordination). It should be noted that when A. Marshall analyzed the impact of the external environment on the organization of production, he spoke about the role of competition and cooperation in the development of the economy. Our understanding of cooperation lies in the fact that it allows us to coordinate the interests of business and the goals of the development of society. The system that implements the role of cooperation in a competitive environment is the system of economic coordination under study. W. Eucken proposed two constitutive principles for post-war Germany in the transition from a command economy to a market economy: the policy of the state is aimed at dissolving or limiting economic power groups; the political and economic activity of the state is aimed at creating forms of the economic environment, and not at regulating the economic process.

We present these mechanisms in Fig. 4.1.

Rice. 4.1. Decentralized and centralized coordination mechanism

Global coordination through the inclusiveness (inclusion) of economic agents ensures the formation of world norms and rules of business. The main condition for perfect competition (the ideal of reforming the Russian economy) is that the market price is formed under the influence of the aggregate supply and demand of all participants. The structure of communication between market entities - the market structure - is such that no one individually can influence the price. But since the competitive market since the time of A. Smith has lost the ability to self-regulate due to the increasing concentration of production and capital in new forms, the competition mechanism is being replaced by other systems.

Table 4.1. Global Economic Coordination Mechanism

The market and its infrastructure are manifested through institutions: the monetary system, commodity exchanges, currency convertibility, etc. At present, these institutions have acquired, in the main, a global character. The table shows that the mechanism of global economic coordination is associated with obtaining competitive advantages. Global coordination ensures the formation of world norms and rules of management through the inclusiveness (involvement) of economic agents, which manifest themselves in the modern world as the relationship between the center and the periphery in network spatial structures. This conclusion is made on the basis of the substantiation of the network society by M. Castells (1996), who, using numerous examples, proved that the dominant processes and functions in our societies are determined by the configuration of relationships in networks and between networks.

In our opinion, a new era has begun, characterized by the fourth stage in the evolution of the principle of coordination in the economy. The first stage represented the so-called "invisible hand" of Smith's market coordination and was expressed in the reduction of mass production costs in vertically specialized industrial enterprises coordinated by the market. Alfred Chandler (1977) called the second stage the visible hand of hierarchical coordination using the organizational innovations of the US management team. The third stage is solving the problem by improving the internal organization of the firm, and not productivity (reducing costs). This position contradicts the notion that developed in the 1990s in the United States and Great Britain about the economy as an object of central government demand management policy.

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3. 4.

3. 5.

The economic system is a set of interrelated social and legal institutions, within which, in order to achieve economic equilibrium, certain methods and methods of action are used, chosen in relation to the motives of economic activity prevailing in society.

The first detailed analysis of the economy as a system was given by A. Smith, the founder of the classical school of political economy, in his main scientific work “A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations”, published in 1776. Of the subsequent scientific economic systems, one should, first of all, single out systems created by D. Ricardo (1817), F. Liszt (1841), J.S. Mill (1848), K. Marx (1867), K. Menger (1871), A. Marshall (1890), J. Keynes (1936), P. Samuelson (1951) ). Of the Russian economists of the past, who emphasized a systemic view of the economy, it should be noted I.T. Pososhkova, A.I. Butovsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky, A.I. Chuprov, P.B. Struve, V.I. Lenin, N.D. Kondratiev. If the elements of the economy were not systematized, economic laws would cease to exist, there could not be a theoretical understanding of economic phenomena and processes, economic policy would be inefficient and uncoordinated.

In Russian and foreign literature there is no single definition of the concept of an economic system. Usually, the authors point to the existence of a certain set of mechanisms and institutions that ensure the functioning of production, the distribution of income and consumption within certain territorial limits.

The term "economic system" itself is used at different levels. The simplest formations can also be considered an economic system, for example, individual households or business entities, but most often this term is used in the framework of the macroeconomic approach, when the patterns of functioning are considered. national economy generally. But in any economic system, the primary role is played by production with distribution, exchange, consumption; in all economic systems, economic resources are required for production, and the results of economic activity are distributed, exchanged and consumed. At the same time, there are also elements in economic systems that distinguish them from each other. They are: socio-economic relations based on the forms of ownership of economic resources and results of economic activity that have developed in each economic system, organizational and legal forms of economic activity, economic mechanism- a way of regulating economic activity.

The essence of the economic system

The economy is a complex, multi-level, developing system. The economic system of a society consists of small economic systems - households, individual enterprises, groups of interconnected enterprises, industries, divisions, etc. Developing economic systems can be divided into socio-economic and technical and economic

Different stages of development of the economic system are characterized by specific features. A complex economic system has not only structural, but also genetic ties. This means that with the development of communication systems do not remain unchanged. Therefore, the structure and specific features of the economic system are the product of history. The more complex the system of society, the stronger the need for its regulation. At the same time, the more highly organized the economic system, the greater the need for autonomy and relative freedom of its main parts.

The economic and any other system is part of a larger one. For example, an enterprise is connected with the activities of the industry as a whole, with intersectoral economic systems, with the economic system of society, and that, in turn, through international specialization, with the economic systems of societies in other countries. The study of the economic system of society involves: the allocation of its main elements, levels and the establishment of relationships between them; analysis of the origin and development (genesis) of the economic systems of society; comparison of different approaches to the analysis of economic systems; highlighting the main features on the basis of which it is possible to determine the types of economic systems.

The nature and structure of the economic mechanism depend on the content of organizational and economic relations, which in turn are filled with the content of the structure of social production. For example, a large share in the economy of agriculture and forestry, light industry, leather and footwear production predetermines the need for developed local self-government, and for manufacturing industries - nationwide management. In the first case, one type of management is used, in the second - another.

The economic mechanism covers not only organizational and economic relations directly related to production and other economic structures, but also socio-economic relations, the superstructure; those. not only primary but also secondary economic ties and business processes. economic process usually organized as the owner of the production wants. In cooperative production, one principle of management is used, and in the public sector, another. In private production, a fundamentally different method of management can be used. In addition, a number of economic actions are regulated legislative acts. So, the income of enterprises cannot be freely disposed of until taxes are paid, credits are not paid. Thus, the economic mechanism covers not only purely economic, but a certain range of socio-economic (and even social) relations.

The modern classification of economic systems involves four models of economic systems:

Traditional economy;
Command-administrative economy (planned);
Market economy (pure capitalism);
Mixed economy.

Let's take a closer look at each of them.

The most primitive of all types of economic systems. Exists in economically underdeveloped countries. It is based on backward technologies, the dominance of manual labor, and the multistructural nature of the economy. The multistructural nature of the economy means the existence of various forms of management in a given economic system. In a number of countries natural-communal forms are preserved, based on communal collective farming and natural forms of distribution of the created product. Small-scale production is of great importance in the traditional system. It is based on private ownership of productive resources and the personal labor of their owner. Small-scale production in countries with a traditional system is represented by numerous peasant and handicraft farms. Since national entrepreneurship in such countries is poorly developed, foreign capital plays a huge role in their economy.

Traditions and customs, religious and cultural values, caste and estate division prevail in the life of society, which, of course, hinders socio-economic progress.

feature traditional system is the active role of the state, which allocates funds for the development of infrastructure and the provision of social support to the poorest segments of the population, redistributing a significant part of the national income through the budget.

A market economy or pure capitalism is characterized by the use of a system of markets and prices to coordinate and manage economic activity and private ownership of resources. Personal freedom of all participants in economic activity is one of the main prerequisites for pure capitalism. The behavior of each participant is motivated by his personal interests. The market system is presented as a mechanism for coordinating individual decisions. Goods and services are produced and resources are offered in a competitive environment, meaning that there are many independent buyers and sellers of each product and resource. One of the main conditions for economic progress was the legal equality of the employee and the entrepreneur as participants market relations. There was freedom of movement of labor within the labor market, the employee had the freedom to choose subjects and ways to meet needs. The other side of the freedom of choice was personal responsibility for maintaining the workforce in a normal state, for the correctness of the decision made, for compliance with the terms of the labor agreement.

Fundamental tasks economic development in this system are solved indirectly, through prices and the market. Price fluctuations serve as an indicator of social needs, focusing on them, the commodity producer himself solves the problem of production and distribution of goods in demand. The desire to obtain maximum profit with the most economical use of resources serves as a powerful incentive for the development of production, reveals the creative possibilities of private property.

Proponents of pure capitalism argue that such an economic system is conducive to the efficient use of resources, stable production, and rapid economic growth. There is very little or no need for government planning, government control and state intervention in the economic process, which will only undermine the efficiency of the market system. The role of government is therefore limited to the protection of private property and the establishment of a proper legal framework to facilitate the functioning of free markets.

In a market economy, households make purchase plans, and enterprises make their production plans independently and independently of each other. Both sides are striving to realize their plans. Businesses, for example, want to sell as high as possible, while households want to buy as low as possible. Through the mechanism market prices bid and ask prices are equalized. The price in conditions of market equilibrium informs the seller and the buyer about the shortage or excess, respectively, of the goods.

Economic activity the state is limited to satisfying collective needs (for example, health care, education, justice), otherwise the state is called upon to guarantee the basic rights of a free market economy.

Freedom of contract guarantees producers and consumers the right to buy and sell as they please, in accordance with their own business plans. Each entrepreneur is given the freedom to engage in any type of activity and freely choose the subject of his economic activity. Free competition prevails in the market. Free choice of place of work enables employees to choose the type and place of work at their own discretion.

As already mentioned, the command economy is characterized by the fact that the main decisions on key issues are made by the state, and these decisions are implemented by the lower levels. A market economy is an economic system that is built on the comprehensive use of market relations. It covers the whole complex: production, distribution, exchange, consumption. Its center is the market, where there is an emphasis and orientation on supply and demand, that is, the market expresses the relationship that develops between the seller and the buyer of goods.

basis centralized system is state property, and the basis of a market economy is private property.

An economic system with centralized control operates in the complete absence of private property. In this case, the state acts as a manager of the highest level in the person of government officials, administrative bureaucracy, and the labor force acts as users - producers. At the same time, a large, expensive army of government officials is needed, which collects the necessary information, for example, the need for stocks of raw materials, production capacities, manufactured products, processes it, draws up current and long-term plans, coordinates them among themselves, reviews, and monitors their implementation. A lot of time and money is spent on this, so production, as a rule, lags behind the consumer.

Russia in the recent past can serve as an example of this macroeconomic policy, when in order to produce any product, it was necessary to overcome many different thresholds of administrative bureaucracy. The economic system based on the principles of the market operates on the basis of the classical form of private property and its modifications, the use of objects of which historically forms a producer with a high economic interest. In this system, there is no monopoly of disposal, which limits the functions of the manufacturer and does not allow the search for the most effective methods of use.

Currently, a mixed economic system is widely used, which is based on a market economy. The goal of the state is not to correct the market mechanism, but to create conditions for its free functioning, i.e. competition should be ensured wherever the regulatory influence of the state is possible, and wherever it is necessary. In other words, the "invisible hand of the market" must be supplemented by the visible hand of the state, through legislative prohibitions, tax system, mandatory payments and deductions, public investment, subsidies, benefits, lending, implementation of state social and economic programs.

It is known that social production should solve the following three problems:

1. What to produce;

2. How to produce;

3. For whom to produce.

So, in countries with a command economy, these problems are solved by the same numerous and “expensive” bureaucracy.

In countries with market economies, to the question: “What to produce?” respond, focusing on consumer demand; "How to produce?" - the manufacturer decides for himself, while building his production so that there is a minimum of costs and a maximum of profit; finally, to the question "For whom to produce?" the market replies: "For those who are able to buy the commodity."

Just in this case, the state must provide purchasing power in order to avoid social conflicts, but doing it in such a way as not to “kill” the business activity of enterprising people.

A mixed economy is distinguished by the heterogeneity of its constituent elements, as a result of the connection and interweaving of various forms of economy, various formation formations, various civilizational systems, as well as more complex combinations of various elements of systems.

Currently, the mixed economy appears in the following forms:

· mixed economy of developing (especially underdeveloped) countries, in which "mixing" is caused by a low level of development and the presence of backward economic forms;

· mixed economy of developed countries (developed mixed economy).

The spread of the idea of a mixed economy reflected real changes in the socio-economic life of society, manifested in the complication of the forms of interaction between the market and state regulation of the economy, private entrepreneurship and the process of socialization, as well as in an increasingly noticeable penetration into the structure of social systems of post-industrial principles. The most common interpretation of the term "mixed economy" focuses on the combination of the private and public sectors of the economy and on the diversity of the form of ownership. Another position highlights the problem of combining the market mechanism and state regulation. The third position, initiated by various social reformist currents, is based on a combination of private enterprise capital and sociality, public social guarantees. Finally, another position, arising from the civilizational approach, aims at the problem of the correlation of economic and non-economic principles in the structure of modern society.

All these interpretations do not contradict each other, they reflect the presence of several lines of formation of the modern type of a developed economy and their unity. A mixed economy is a simultaneous combination of these parameters, namely: a combination of the private and public sectors of the economy, the market and state regulation, capitalist tendencies and the socialization of life, economic and non-economic principles. Mixing of the economy characterizes not only the presence of various structural elements in its composition, but also the formation of specific forms of their combination in the real economy. An example of this can be public-private joint-stock enterprises, contract agreements between state bodies and private firms, social partnerships, etc.

Today, a mixed economy is an integral system that is an adequate form of a modern developed society. Its elements are based on such a level of productive forces and on such trends in socio-economic development that objectively require the addition of the market with state regulation, private initiative - social guarantees, as well as the inclusion of post-industrial principles in the economic structure of society. A mixed economy is not a conglomerate, although it is inferior to "pure" systems in terms of the degree of homogeneity of its constituent elements. AT different countries and regions, various models of a mixed economy are emerging, differing from each other in their “national mixing coefficients” and depending on the characteristics of many factors: the level and nature of the material and technical base, historical and geopolitical conditions for the formation of the social structure, national and sociocultural characteristics of the country, the influence of certain or other socio-political forces, etc.

The American model is a liberal market-capitalist model, which assumes the priority role of private property, the market-competitive mechanism, capitalist motivations, high level social differentiation.

The German model is a model of the social market economy, which links the expansion of competitive principles with the creation of a special social infrastructure mitigating the shortcomings of the market and capital, with the formation of a multi-layered institutional structure of subjects of social policy. In the German economic model, the state does not set economic goals- this lies in the plane of individual market solutions - but will create reliable legal and social framework conditions for the implementation of economic initiative. Such framework conditions are embodied in civil society and the social equality of individuals (equality of rights, starting opportunities and legal protection). They actually consist of two main parts: civil and economic law, on the one hand, and a system of measures to maintain a competitive environment, on the other. The most important task of the state is to ensure a balance between market efficiency and social justice. The interpretation of the state as a source and protector of the legal norms governing economic activity and competitive conditions does not go beyond the Western economic tradition. But the understanding of the state in the German model and, in general, in the concept of the social market economy differs from the understanding of the state in other countries. market models the notion of more active state intervention in the economy.

The German model, which combines the market with a high degree of state interventionism, is characterized by the following features:

· individual freedom as a condition for the functioning of market mechanisms and decentralized decision-making. In turn, this condition is provided by the active public policy maintaining competition;

· social equality - the market distribution of income is determined by the amount of capital invested or the amount of individual effort, while achieving relative equality requires vigorous social policy. Social policy is based on the search for compromises between groups with opposing interests, as well as on the direct participation of the state in the provision of social benefits, for example, in housing construction;

· countercyclical regulation;

· stimulation of technological and organizational innovations;

· carrying out structural policy;

· protection and promotion of competition. The listed features of the German model are derived from the fundamental principles of the social market economy, the first of which is the organic unity of the market and the state.

The Japanese model is a model of regulated corporate capitalism, in which favorable opportunities for capital accumulation are combined with the active role of state regulation in the areas of economic development programming, structural, investment and foreign economic policy, and with the special social significance of the corporate principle.

The Swedish model is a social-democratic model that places the state as the supreme socio-economic force. Democratically elected state power is delegated enormous powers to regulate socio-economic life. However, one cannot but admit that the conceptual differences between the social market economy and "Scandinavian socialism" are blurred in practice. Thus, the main the developed countries headed for the construction of a mixed system of economy.

The political and economic concept of the socio-market economy is aimed at the synthesis of freedom guaranteed by the rule of law, economic freedom and ideals welfare state related to social security and social justice. This combination of goals - freedom and justice - is reflected in the concept of "social market economy". The market economy embodies economic freedom. It consists in the freedom of consumers to buy products of their choice - freedom of consumption, freedom of production and trade, freedom of competition.

Expanding the functions of the state in modern society while maintaining market freedoms, institutions and mechanisms, to a decisive extent due to the increased complexity of the socio-economic process. Many of the fundamental problems of today's society cannot be effectively solved with the help of market mechanisms alone. This is primarily the strengthening of the social sphere, which has become one of the most important sources of economic growth. Thus, the level of education, qualifications of the labor force and the state of scientific research directly affect the pace and quality of economic growth, which is confirmed by econometric calculations. The quality of the labor force and economic development in general are greatly influenced by health care, social security and the state of the environment. The market itself cannot create a powerful social sphere, although market mechanisms, especially competition, can have a strong social focus.

A socially oriented market economy is aimed at fulfilling both economic and non-economic goals, which in general view can be formulated like this:

· ensuring economic growth and economic stability;

· social security and social justice;

· promotion of competition;

· ensuring political stability.

Planning is a means of adapting to market requirements. For example, on the basis of marketing research of individual firms, the issue of the volume and structure of manufactured products is solved, social needs are forecasted, which makes it possible to reduce the production of obsolete goods in advance and introduce innovations. National programs also have a significant impact on the volume and structure of goods and services produced, ensuring their greater compliance with changing public needs. At the same time, the redistribution of resources for the development of new industries occurs at the expense of budget allocations, state national and interstate programs.

Finally, the problem of distributing the generated gross national product is solved not only on the basis of traditionally established forms, but is also supplemented by the allocation of more and more resources as big companies and the state for investments in the development of the "human factor": financing of education systems, including retraining of workers of various qualifications, improvement medical care of the population, social needs, for which in countries with developed market economies at least 30-40% of the state budget is currently directed.

In the early 1970s, the positive potential of economic reform was exhausted, the national economy was returning to traditional sources of economic growth at the expense of the fuel and energy and military-industrial complex. Thus, these reforms were actually aimed at prolonging the existence of the administrative-command system itself, since they did not reject its basic principles, without which attempts to reform the economy could not have the desired effect.

The main reasons for the failure of economic reform during the years of "perestroika" were:

· continuous adjustments to ongoing economic reforms;

· delay in the implementation of decisions already taken;

· the beginning of the dismantling of the former vertical of economic management without the creation of new management mechanisms;

· lagging behind the processes of economic reform from the rapid changes in political life;

· weakening of the center;

· activation political struggle around the ways of economic development of the country;

· loss of faith by the population in the ability of the authorities to achieve real change for the better.

By the summer of 1991, Gorbachev's economic reforms had failed completely. Thus, the Soviet economy in 1985-1991 went through a difficult path from a planned-directive model to a market one. This meant the complete dismantling of the economic management system that had existed for decades. However, the old governance structures were destroyed, and new ones were not created.

But it is necessary to focus on another, if not the most important side of the complex intra-system relations in a planned economy, its theoretical significance, has not been given due attention. In fact, this system not only survived the death of communism, but flourished during the transition to a market economy. Whatever other factors were on the list of those that contributed to the collapse planned economy, abuses, corruption and a "parallel economy" have completely taken over the course of events after the last bastions of its official institutions and system of property rights have collapsed. The "parallel economy" in the former Soviet Union apparently had much in common with the market economy. In particular, it was completely free from state interference. Prices were set freely, and all economic entities in that economy acted strictly in accordance with the principle of profit maximization.

Along with the formation of the labor market, goods, housing, etc., a step was taken towards restructuring National economy, which led to the fact that entire industries turned out to be unpromising. In addition, the long-term absence from Soviet economy internal and external competition led to the loss of cost and quality benchmarks for Russian manufacturers, so in the early 1990s a large number of domestic goods are no longer in demand due to their low quality and non-compliance with international standards. As a result, during this period there was the strongest decline in production, and the main volume of the fall occurred in the period before 1994.

But no matter what, the fact that we have left the Soviet system is already a huge historical step forward. First of all, we got rid of the suffocating atmosphere of a totalitarian state, and the problems and failures that we face today are the subject of public attention and discussion. We have done away with universal economic and personal dependence on the state, gained an independent economic activity and a significant set of civil and personal freedoms, including freedom of speech, conscience, choice of occupation and residence, freedom of movement and the right to property, and much more. In the economic sphere, we have received the foundations of a market economy, including the institution of private property, and although limited in scope, but nevertheless a working mechanism of competition.

Current Russian government must admit that the reforms did not lead to the creation of a market economy, but rather a pseudo-market economy or "artificial capitalism". The transition to a real market economy must include its complete restructuring through an alternative approach, which is a triad - institutions, competition and government. The need for the development of institutions in carrying out economic transformations was emphasized in their Nobel speeches by the winners of the economics prizes for 1991 and 1993.

The importance of incorporating institutional factors into the corpus of the general economy is clear from recent developments in Eastern Europe. Former communist countries are advised to move to a market economy, and their leaders desire it, but without appropriate institutions, no market economy is possible.

There is an opinion that there are specific Russian barriers. There are three arguments to support this thesis:

1. It was in Russia that socialism was born, and the country was under communist rule for 70 years.

2. Even before the First World War, Russia lagged behind Western Europe and America in the process of modernization.

3. Russia, due to the mentality of the population, the influence of the Orthodox Church and the enlightenment that was not carried out as a result of this, and also because of the strong Asian influence, does not belong to Western European culture, which has implemented a market economy and democracy.

Undoubtedly, all these factors in one way or another influence the formation of a market economy in our country, and they influence negatively.

The market system implies such a structure of the economic life of society, in which all economic resources are privately owned, and all decisions are made in the respective markets. These markets are not restricted or regulated by anyone.

The command-administrative system involves the elimination of private ownership of the factors of production and its replacement with state ownership. The main economic issues are decided by the state authorities and implemented with the help of binding orders and plans. To do this, the state is forced to regulate all aspects of the economic life of society, including the setting of prices and wages. The poor functioning of such a system is associated with the loss of people's interest in work and the assessment of its results according to formal criteria, which may not coincide with the real needs of society.

A mixed economic system is a combination of private ownership of the vast majority of economic resources with limited state ownership. The state participates in solving basic economic issues not with the help of plans, but by centralizing at its disposal a part of economic resources. These resources are allocated in such a way as to compensate for some weaknesses in the market mechanisms.

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