payback period
concept capital investments, current (operational) and reduced costs for environmental purposes.
Current and prospective costs for the implementation of measures to protect the atmosphere, water basins and soil are made up of capital investments and current costs for the maintenance and operation of fixed assets of environmental protection. appointment. The current costs of nature protection are made up of the costs that ensure the operation of the enterprise in compliance with the standards for emissions and discharges of harmful substances, waste disposal in compliance with the MPE (MPD) and VSV (VSS) standards. Long-term costs should provide for the costs of reducing emissions (discharges) of pollutants and, first of all, to achieve MPE (MPD). To capt. vlozh-pits include one-time costs for the creation and reconstruction of environmental protection equipment. Current costs include: the cost of maintaining, servicing and repairing gas treatment equipment, devices for collecting and neutralizing waste, sludge, including pilot plants, and the cost of monitoring the content of harmful substances in exhaust gases and Wastewater Oh. These also include additional costs for the operation of the BPF associated with the improvement of the production technology, for example, to reduce the negative and to pay for environmental protection services, for example, the transfer of wastewater for post-treatment and discharge into the sewer. Current costs for the maintenance and operation of any facility for environmental protection purposes, a warehouse from the costs of raw materials and materials, electricity, salaries of service personnel with accruals, depreciation deductions for full restoration and Maintenance. When defining current costs, the cost of services of other organizations for receiving, transporting and treating wastewater, and monitoring the quality of wastewater and waste gas treatment is also taken into account. The current costs of protecting land from pollution with waste include the costs of maintaining and operating installations for the neutralization and disposal of pollutants, warehouses, storage facilities, sludge collectors, etc.
35. Personnel management- one of the most important components of modern management. Personnel management activities - a targeted impact on the human component of the organization, focused on bringing the capabilities of the personnel and the goals, strategies, conditions for the development of the organization into line. The main methods of personnel management include: results (material incentives and sanctions, financing and lending, salary, cost, profit, price). Organizational and administrative methods are methods of direct influence, which are of a directive and mandatory nature. They are based on discipline, responsibility, power, coercion. Socio-psychological methods (motivation, moral encouragement, social planning, etc.).
Human Resources Specialist - HR Manager (Human Resources Specialist). Enterprises sometimes solve personnel management problems with the help of more qualified recruitment agencies, if they have the appropriate qualifications (education, experience, results). Team management is an art that a leader must master. Characteristics of the leader: biographical, abilities, personality traits. Since the participants in the management process are people, social relations and the corresponding management methods that reflect them are important and are closely related to other management methods.
These include: - moral encouragement; - social planning; - belief; - suggestion; - personal example; - regulation of interpersonal and intergroup relations; - creating and maintaining a moral climate in the team.
36 . Making managerial decisions.
Decision making in an organization is characterized as the process of identifying and solving problems. Most sources identify two key stages in the decision-making process in an organization: 1. Problem definition. Here, information about the conditions of the external environment and the organization itself is monitored in order to determine levels of performance and identify the cause of shortcomings. 2. Solution. Here, alternative courses of action are considered, then one option is selected and implemented.
Programmed decisions are characterized by: repetitive and well-defined; the organization already has procedures for dealing with this problem; there is complete information on current indicators; the problem has a clear structure in terms of performance criteria; alternatives are easily identified and there is a high probability of success.
Non-programmed solutions have the following characteristics: new, poorly defined and there is no system for solving them; there is not enough information about the problem; there are no clear criteria for the effectiveness of the solution; alternative solutions are not clear; there is uncertainty as to whether the proposed course of action will be followed; it is usually possible to develop few options for action, so traditionally a single solution to a problem is adopted.
Important organizational management decisions, i.e. those that are both unprogrammed and affect the entire organization or a significant part of it, have a certain number of specific characteristics, in particular, such: they are usually not taken solely by one manager; include many divisions, many points of view and expectations that lie outside of the individual decision maker; include a large amount of information that does not fit into the boundaries of competence and professional training of individual managers; involve significant political activity and coalition building.
37. Conflict management. Conflicts are integral part modern life. This statement is especially true in a business context. Business itself is a conflict. Conflicts occur both within the company, between its employees. So it is between company employees: negotiations, sales - all these are forms of conflict interactions. That is why Conflict Management This is one of the most sought after trainings in today's business. training conflict management contains both practical and theoretical parts. The theoretical part is designed to talk about the models of conflicts that exist in this moment. The second task of the theoretical part is to talk about ways to manage certain types of conflicts. The task of the practical part is to consolidate the theoretical knowledge gained by modeling conflict situations in special exercises. At the conflict management training, an idea is given of the main models of conflicts, the relationship between conflicts and emotions, the distribution of responsibility and its impact on conflicts, etc. Also in the conflict management training there are elements of stress management and team building. Thus, we can state that the training conflict management is one of best picks among training products.
Types of costs.
Fixed costs. These are costs that do not change with the volume of production. They exist even if there is no production. These include: interest on loans and credits, rent, depreciation, maintenance of equipment, security costs, salaries of certain personnel.
variable costs. Variable costs are such costs, the value of which varies depending on changes in the volume of production (these include: seeds, feed, fertilizers, fuel, labor force).
General (gross, full) costs. It is the total sum of fixed and variable costs for any given volume of production. At zero output, total cost is equal to fixed cost. Then, with the production of each additional unit of output, the total cost is changed by the amount of variable costs.
marginal cost is the increase in the cost of producing an additional unit of output.
Cadastres of natural resources
Cadastres of natural resources - these are sets of economic, environmental, organizational and technical indicators characterizing the quantity and quality natural resource, as well as categories of nature users
Includes:
State registration of nature users
Number of accounting for natural resources
Economy assessment of natural resources
Land Registry includes information about the amount of land, their distribution by category and nature of use, qualitative composition; about owners, owners, users and tenants of land. Doing land registry is in the competence of Roskomzem - the State Committee for Land Resources and Land Management of the Russian Federation.
Forest cadastre contains information about the qualitative and quantitative composition of forests, groups and categories of their protection, economic evaluation forests, legal regime use forest fund and etc.
Water cadastre contains current and prospective assessments of the state of water bodies and their use, provides for measures to prevent pollution and depletion of water bodies and restore water quality
Cadastre of mineral deposits includes information about the economic value of each deposit, its mining, economic and environmental conditions.
A kind of cadastre of rare animals and plants are Red Books Federations, republics, territories and regions. There are also registries hunting, animals, fish stocks, nature reserves, environmental pollutants, which are maintained by the relevant ministries and departments.
Main economic concepts and performance indicators of the enterprise.
Needs - These are the types of products, goods; services, things that people need, that they desire, strive to have and consume, use. They are divided into biological and social, saturable and unsatisfied needs. Economic resources- a set of resources used in economic activity, including natural, labor, capital resources (capital). Resource rarity - limited availability certain types resources, the discrepancy between their quantity and what is necessary to meet the needs of production, the individual, and society. Economic relations- relations between people, countries, firms and companies that develop in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of goods. An economic law is an essential, necessary, stable relationship in economic phenomena and processes that determines their development. Factors of production - For the production of any good, resources are needed that act as factors of production: labor, land, capital, entrepreneurship. Enterprise performance indicators: - economic effect; - performance indicators; - payback period of capital; - the break-even point of management. The main indicator characterizing the economic effect of activities manufacturing enterprise, is profit. Economic efficiency is a relative indicator that measures the effect obtained with the costs that caused this effect, or with the resources used to achieve this effect:
payback period(T) is the ratio of capital (K) to net profit (P h).
This parameter shows how many years the funds invested in this enterprise will pay off under unchanged conditions of production and financial activity. Performance indicators: profitability, capital productivity indicators and working capital turnover ratio. The concept of a break-even business can be expressed as a simple question: how many units of production must be sold in order to recover the costs incurred in doing so.
1.1. Goals and objectives of the analysis economic results enterprise activities.
One of the main requirements for the functioning of enterprises and their associations in the conditions market economy are break-even economic and other activities, reimbursement of expenses own income and ensuring in a certain amount of profitability, profitability of management. The main task of the enterprise is economic activity aimed at making a profit to satisfy the social and economic interests of the members of the labor collective and the interests of the owner of the enterprise's property. The main indicators characterizing the results of the commercial activities of trading enterprises are turnover, gross income, other income, distribution costs, profit and profitability.
The purpose of the analysis of volumetric performance indicators is to identify, study and mobilize reserves for income growth, profit, increase profitability while improving the quality of customer service. In the process of analysis, they check the degree of fulfillment of plans for turnover, income, costs, profits, profitability, study their dynamics, determine and measure the influence of factors on results commercial activities enterprises, identify and mobilize reserves for their growth, especially predictive ones. One of the main tasks of the analysis is also to study the economic feasibility and efficiency of the distribution and use of profits.
To achieve these goals, trade enterprises must solve the following tasks:
Assess the extent to which profit maximization was ensured;
In cases of unprofitable work, the reasons for such management are identified and ways out of the current situation are determined;
Consider income on the basis of their comparison with expenses and identify profit from sales;
Study the trends in income changes for the main product groups and in general from trading activities;
Reveal what part of the income is used to reimburse the costs of circulation, taxes and the formation of profits;
Calculate the deviation of the amount of balance sheet profit compared with the amount of profit from sales and determine the reasons for these deviations;
Explore various profitability ratios for reporting period and in dynamics;
Identify reserves to increase profits and increase profitability and determine how and when it is possible to use these reserves;
Examine the use of profits and assess whether funding is provided through own funds development of economic activity.
In practice, external and internal analysis is used.
External Analysis is based on published reporting data and therefore contains a limited part of information about the activities of enterprises. aim its is to assess the profitability of the enterprise, the efficiency of capital use. The results of this assessment are taken into account in the relationship of the enterprise with shareholders, creditors, tax authorities and serve as the basis for determining the position of this enterprise in the market, in the industry and in the business world. Naturally, the published information does not affect all areas of the enterprise, contains aggregated data, mainly on their financial activities, and therefore has the ability to smooth out and veil the negative phenomena that take place in the activities of enterprises.
Therefore, external consumers of analytical material try, if possible, to obtain additional information on the activities of enterprises beyond what they publish.
Of greatest importance in evaluating performance and determining measures to increase profits and increase profitability is internal analysis. It is based on the use of the entire complex economic information, primary documents and analytical, statistical, accounting and reporting. The analyst has the opportunity to realistically assess the state of affairs in the enterprise. He can obtain from the primary source reliable information about the pricing policy of the enterprise and its income, about the formation of profit from sales, about the structure of distribution costs and other expenses, assess the position of the enterprise in commodity markets, about gross (balance sheet) profit, etc.
It is the internal analysis that allows us to study the mechanism for achieving maximum profit by the enterprise. This type of analysis plays a decisive role in the development of the most important issues of the enterprise's competitive policy, which are used in assessing the fulfillment of the tasks set and in developing development programs for the future.
This type of analysis, associated with the study of trends that have developed in the past, is called retrospective, and aimed at studying the future - prospective.
An integrated approach to the study of the final results of commercial activities allows you to make informed management decisions in the course of current activities, promotes the choice the best options actions in the future.
1.2. The main economic indicators of the enterprise
The performance of the enterprise can be characterized by the following indicators:
Economic effect;
Performance indicators;
Payback period of capital;
Liquidity;
Business break-even point.
Economic effect- this is an absolute indicator (profit, income from sales, etc.) that characterizes the result of the enterprise. The main indicator characterizing the economic effect of the activities of a manufacturing enterprise is profit. Profit is what it is for entrepreneurial activity. Profit generation procedure:
Profit P p from the sale of products (sales) is the difference between the sales proceeds (B p) the costs of production and marketing of products (full cost Z pr), the amount of value added tax (VAT) and excises (AKC):
P p \u003d V p - Z pr - VAT - ACC.
Profit from other sales (P pr) is the profit received from the sale of fixed assets and other property, waste, intangible assets. It is defined as the difference between the proceeds from the sale (B pr) and the costs of this sale (Z p):
P pr \u003d B pr - Z r.
Profit from non-operating operations is the difference between income from non-operating operations (D ext) and expenses on non-operating operations (R ext):
P vn = D vn -R vn.
Income from non-operating operations is income from equity participation in the activities of another enterprise, dividends on shares, income from bonds and other securities, proceeds from the lease of property, fines received, as well as other income from operations not directly related to the sale of products.
Costs for non-sales operations are the costs of production that did not produce products.
Balance sheet profit: P b \u003d P r + P pr + P ext.
Net profit: Pch \u003d Pb - otchsl.
Retained earnings: Pnr \u003d Pch -DV - percent.
Profit can be distributed in the directions indicated in Figure 3.8.
Rice. 1.1. Profit distribution
The reserve fund is created by the enterprise in case of termination of its activities to cover accounts payable. The formation of a reserve fund for enterprises of certain organizational and legal forms is mandatory. Allocations to the reserve fund are made in accordance with the current regulations.
The accumulation fund is intended for the creation of new property, the acquisition of fixed and working capital. The value of the accumulation fund characterizes the enterprise's development and expansion capabilities.
The consumption fund is intended for the implementation of measures for social development and material incentives for the staff of the company. The consumption fund consists of two parts: the public consumption fund and the personal consumption fund, the ratio between which largely depends on state structure, historically established national traditions, and other political factors. According to its natural material content, the consumption fund is embodied in consumer goods and services. According to the method of education and socio-economic forms of use, the consumption fund is divided into: wage and income fund, public consumption fund, maintenance fund public organizations and control apparatus. The progress of society is usually accompanied by an increase in real wages and incomes, an improvement in the quality of consumer goods and services, a faster development of consumer durables and cultural and household purposes, means of development. non-production sphere. However, the growth of the consumption fund has objective limits, its excessive growth will inevitably lead to an unreasonable reduction in the accumulation fund, which will undermine the material foundations of expanded reproduction and economic growth. Therefore, it is necessary to strive for an optimal combination of the consumption fund and the accumulation fund in order to ensure both high and stable rates of economic growth and an increase in living standards, real incomes and consumption of the people.
1.1. Goals and objectives of the analysis of the economic results of the enterprise.
One of the main requirements for the functioning of enterprises and their associations in a market economy is the break-even of economic and other activities, the reimbursement of expenses by their own income and the provision of a certain amount of profitability, profitability of management. The main task of the enterprise is economic activity aimed at making a profit to satisfy the social and economic interests of the members of the labor collective and the interests of the owner of the enterprise's property. The main indicators characterizing the results of the commercial activities of trading enterprises are turnover, gross income, other income, distribution costs, profit and profitability.
The purpose of the analysis of volumetric performance indicators is to identify, study and mobilize reserves for income growth, profit, increase profitability while improving the quality of customer service. In the process of analysis, they check the degree of fulfillment of plans for turnover, income, costs, profits, profitability, study their dynamics, determine and measure the influence of factors on the results of commercial activities of enterprises, identify and mobilize reserves for their growth, especially forecast ones. One of the main tasks of the analysis is also to study the economic feasibility and efficiency of the distribution and use of profits.
To achieve these goals, trade enterprises must solve the following tasks:
Assess the extent to which profit maximization was ensured;
In cases of unprofitable work, the reasons for such management are identified and ways out of the current situation are determined;
Consider income on the basis of their comparison with expenses and identify profit from sales;
Study the trends in income changes for the main product groups and in general from trading activities;
Reveal what part of the income is used to reimburse the costs of circulation, taxes and the formation of profits;
Calculate the deviation of the amount of balance sheet profit compared with the amount of profit from sales and determine the reasons for these deviations;
Explore various profitability indicators for the reporting period and in dynamics;
Identify reserves to increase profits and increase profitability and determine how and when it is possible to use these reserves;
They study the directions of using profits and assess whether financing is provided at the expense of own funds for the development of economic activities.
In practice, external and internal analysis is used.
External Analysis is based on published reporting data and therefore contains a limited part of information about the activities of enterprises. aim its is to assess the profitability of the enterprise, the efficiency of capital use. The results of this assessment are taken into account in the relationship of the enterprise with shareholders, creditors, tax authorities and serve as the basis for determining the position of this enterprise in the market, in the industry and in the business world. Naturally, the published information does not affect all areas of the enterprise, contains aggregated data, mainly on their financial activities, and therefore has the ability to smooth out and veil the negative phenomena that take place in the activities of enterprises.
Therefore, external consumers of analytical material try, if possible, to obtain additional information about the activities of enterprises beyond what they publish.
Of greatest importance in evaluating performance and determining measures to increase profits and increase profitability is internal analysis. It is based on the use of the whole complex of economic information, primary documents and analytical, statistical, accounting and reporting data. The analyst has the opportunity to realistically assess the state of affairs in the enterprise. He can obtain from the primary source reliable information about the pricing policy of the enterprise and its income, about the formation of profit from sales, about the structure of distribution costs and other expenses, assess the position of the enterprise in commodity markets, about gross (balance sheet) profit, etc.
It is the internal analysis that allows us to study the mechanism for achieving maximum profit by the enterprise. This type of analysis plays a decisive role in the development of the most important issues of the enterprise's competitive policy, which are used in assessing the fulfillment of the tasks set and in developing development programs for the future.
This type of analysis, associated with the study of trends that have developed in the past, is called retrospective, and aimed at studying the future - prospective.
An integrated approach to the study of the final results of commercial activities allows you to make informed management decisions in the course of current activities, contributes to the choice of the best options for action in the future.
1.2. The main economic indicators of the enterprise
The performance of the enterprise can be characterized by the following indicators:
Economic effect;
Performance indicators;
Payback period of capital;
Liquidity;
Business break-even point.
Economic effect- this is an absolute indicator (profit, income from sales, etc.) that characterizes the result of the enterprise. The main indicator that characterizes the economic effect of the activities of a manufacturing enterprise is profit. Profit is what entrepreneurial activity is for. Profit generation procedure:
Profit P p from the sale of products (sales) is the difference between the sales proceeds (B p) the costs of production and marketing of products (full cost Z pr), the amount of value added tax (VAT) and excises (AKC):
P p \u003d V p - Z pr - VAT - ACC.
Profit from other sales (P pr) is the profit received from the sale of fixed assets and other property, waste, intangible assets. It is defined as the difference between the proceeds from the sale (B pr) and the costs of this sale (Z p):
P pr \u003d B pr - Z r.
Profit from non-operating operations is the difference between income from non-operating operations (D ext) and expenses on non-operating operations (R ext):
P vn = D vn -R vn.
Income from non-sales operations is income from equity participation in the activities of another enterprise, dividends on shares, income from bonds and other securities, income from the lease of property, fines received, as well as other income from operations not directly related to the sale of products .
Costs for non-sales operations are the costs of production that did not produce products.
Balance sheet profit: P b \u003d P r + P pr + P ext.
Net profit: Pch \u003d Pb - otchsl.
Retained earnings: Pnr \u003d Pch -DV - percent.
Profit can be distributed in the directions indicated in Figure 3.8.
Rice. 1.1. Profit distribution
The reserve fund is created by the enterprise in case of termination of its activities to cover accounts payable. The formation of a reserve fund for enterprises of certain organizational and legal forms is mandatory. Allocations to the reserve fund are made in accordance with the current regulations.
The accumulation fund is intended for the creation of new property, the acquisition of fixed and working capital. The value of the accumulation fund characterizes the enterprise's development and expansion capabilities.
The consumption fund is intended for the implementation of measures for social development and material incentives for the company's personnel. The consumption fund consists of two parts: the public consumption fund and the personal consumption fund, the ratio between which largely depends on the state structure, historically established national traditions, and other political factors. In terms of its natural material content, the consumption fund is embodied in consumer goods and services . According to the method of education and socio-economic forms of use, the consumption fund is divided into: the wage and income fund, the social consumption fund, the fund for the maintenance of public organizations and the administrative apparatus. The progress of society is usually accompanied by an increase in real wages and incomes, an improvement in the quality of consumer goods and services, a faster development of consumer durables and cultural and household purposes, and means of developing the non-productive sphere. However, the growth of the consumption fund has objective limits, its excessive growth will inevitably lead to an unreasonable reduction in the accumulation fund, which will undermine the material foundations of expanded reproduction and economic growth. Therefore, it is necessary to strive for an optimal combination of the consumption fund and the accumulation fund in order to ensure both high and stable rates of economic growth and an increase in living standards, real incomes and consumption of the people.
The limitation of economic effect indicators lies in the fact that they cannot be used to draw a conclusion about the qualitative level of resource use and the level of profitability of the enterprise.
Economic efficiency is a relative indicator that measures the effect obtained with the costs that caused this effect, or with the resources used to achieve this effect:
Some of these indicators have been considered. For example, these are indicators of capital productivity and the turnover ratio of working capital, which characterize, respectively, the efficiency of the use of fixed assets and working capital.
The degree of profitability of the enterprise can be assessed using profitability indicators. Profitability comprehensively reflects the degree of efficiency in the use of material, labor and monetary resources, as well as natural resources. The profitability ratio is calculated as the ratio of profit to the assets, resources or flows that form it. It can be expressed both in profit per unit of invested funds, and in the profit that each received monetary unit carries. The following main indicators can be distinguished:
a) product profitability(certain types) (R p) is calculated as the ratio of profit from the sale of products (P p) to the costs of its production and sale (Z pr):
b) profitability of the main activity(R od) - the ratio of profit from the sale of products to the costs of its production and sale:
where P r.v.p - profit from the sale of all products;
З pr.v.p - the cost of production and sale of products;
in) return on assets(Ra) - the ratio of the balance sheet profit to the result of the average balance sheet (K cf). This indicator characterizes how effectively fixed and current assets of the enterprise are used. This indicator is of interest to credit and financial institutions, business partners, etc.:
G) return on fixed capital(R o.k) - the ratio of balance sheet profit (P b) to average cost fixed capital (Of s.g):
e) profitability equity (R s.k.) - the ratio of net profit (P h) to the average cost of equity (K s.s.):
This indicator characterizes how much profit each ruble invested by the owner of the capital gives;
e) payback period(T) is the ratio of capital (K) to net profit (P h).
This parameter shows how many years the funds invested in this enterprise will pay off under unchanged conditions of production and financial activity. Such a multifaceted description of production and economic processes can be classified according to the main areas that ensure a further increase in profitability, taking into account external economic or internal production factors that affect its value. The first group includes:
Natural changes entailing an unforeseen decline in the supply of raw materials, disruption of transportation, destruction or damage to significant parts of the production complex;
Regulation market prices at the level government controlled, introduction of new interest rates, tariffs for the provision of energy resources, penalties, etc.
Such factors arise independently of the company's activities and cannot be taken into account in advance, showing a significant impact already at the stage of their occurrence. The degree of increase in the company's profitability will strongly depend on the specialization, for example, an increase in the price of sugar will increase the profitability of agricultural and processing enterprises, while worsening this indicator for confectionery enterprises.
The second group of factors affecting the profitability of an enterprise includes the following subspecies:
Extensive factors of production;
Intensive production factors; - non-manufacturing internal factors.
Extensive development of the company implies an increase in gross turnover by attracting additional labor, temporary work for personnel and equipment, using a larger amount of advanced funds without increasing the relative efficiency of individual production and trading operations.
Economic intensification inside production processes means improving the quality of the final product, strengthening measures to promote services or products on the market through the work of the marketing department, reducing energy costs per unit of production or the ratio of time spent on providing a service to the total time fund, optimizing the use of advanced funds and accelerating resource productivity, which in most cases helps increase profitability.
Timely identification of backup or additional sources attraction of investments and their competent distribution among promising areas - modernization of equipment, application of new marketing methods, timely response to changes in demand and the introduction of new attractive positions in the company's assortment, of course, will increase the final margin of trading operations, thereby increasing profitability. It is also important to carefully plan the entire production cycle to eliminate the loss of time and take into account non-production factors, including social protection workers and the environment.
Liquidity- the ability of assets to be quickly sold at a price close to the market. Liquidity is the ability to turn into money.
Usually, highly liquid, low liquid and illiquid values (assets) are distinguished. The easier and faster you can get the full value of an asset, the more liquid it is. For a product, liquidity will correspond to the speed of its sale at a nominal price.
In the Russian balance sheet the company's assets are arranged in descending order of liquidity. They can be divided into the following groups:
A1. Highly liquid assets ( cash and short-term financial investments)
A2. Marketable assets (short-term receivables, i.e. debt, payments on which are expected within 12 months after the reporting date)
A3. Slow-moving assets (accounts receivable for which payments are expected more than 12 months after the reporting date, as well as other current assets not mentioned above);
A4. Hard-to-sell assets (all non-current assets)
Liabilities of the balance according to the degree of increase in the maturities of obligations are grouped as follows:
P1. The most urgent liabilities (raised funds, which include current accounts payable to suppliers and contractors, personnel, budget, etc.)
P2. medium-term liabilities ( short-term loans and loans, reserves upcoming expenses, others Short-term liabilities)
P3. long term duties(section IV of the balance sheet "Long-term liabilities")
P4. Permanent liabilities (own capital of the organization).
To determine the liquidity of the balance sheet, the totals for each group of assets and liabilities should be compared. Liquidity is considered ideal if the following conditions are met:
Break-even point of business. The concept of a break-even business can be expressed as a simple question: how many units of production must be sold in order to recover the costs incurred in doing so.
Accordingly, product prices are set in such a way as to reimburse all semi-variable costs and receive a markup sufficient to cover semi-fixed costs and make a profit.
As soon as the number of units of production (Q kr) sufficient to reimburse conditionally fixed and conditionally variable costs (full cost) is sold, each unit of production sold in excess of this will be profitable. At the same time, the increase in this profit depends on the ratio of conditionally fixed and conditionally variable costs in the structure of the total cost.
Thus, as soon as the volume of sold units of production reaches the minimum value sufficient to cover the full cost, the enterprise receives a profit that begins to grow faster than this volume. The same effect occurs in the case of a reduction in the volume of economic activity, that is, the rate of decrease in profits and increase in losses outpaces the rate of decrease in sales.
ECONOMY OF ORGANIZATIONS, INDUSTRIES, REGIONS
One of the basic categories in the economy of the enterprise is enterprise capital structure. Its total capital is divided into own and borrowed. Equity capital refers to that part of the property, financial and material resources of the enterprise, which legally completely belongs to this structure and can be used by it at will, taking into account the interests of the organization and its employees. Borrowed capital, in turn, includes that part of the funds that is attracted by the enterprise under various credit schemes and loans: financial resources, equipment for leasing, etc. The use of this part of the enterprise's funds, as a rule, is not completely free and has certain target limits agreed with creditors or lessors. These conditions are described in an agreement or contract, where the company undertakes to comply with them in full, and in case of violation of the rules for the use of borrowed capital, various penalties may be applied.
The second important gradation of the capital of an enterprise is its division according to the principle of fixed and working capital (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1 Capital structure of an enterprise
The presented scheme reflects the structure of the capital of an enterprise from the standpoint of its use in business cycle, according to which it is subdivided into non-current and working capital. Under non-working capital refers to the property that operates during a period exceeding one cycle (turnover) of production, namely: buildings; structures; equipment and power machines; working machines; computer technology and high-tech equipment; vehicles various types (forklifts, cars and trucks, electric cars, etc.); other equipment and machinery.
All listed types of property and equipment have a long service life and wear out gradually, transferring their value to the cost of production through depreciation.
Under working capital means those funds and property of the enterprise that are fully used within the framework of one production cycle (turnover), transferring their value to the cost of production in full. The working capital of an enterprise includes two main groups:circulation funds and circulating production assets. To circulation funds include: cash in the cash desk of the enterprise and on settlement accounts in banks; shipped to the customer and not paid for finished products; finished products in the warehouse of the enterprise; accounts receivable.
Revolving production assets include: materials, raw materials, semi-finished products; fuel; spare parts and details; small production tools with a short service life; unfinished production; future spending.
From the above lists of elements included in circulation funds and circulating production assets, one can see that these two subsystems complement each other in the dynamics of the production process. Funds of circulation in this sense are those internal sources financing of the enterprise that is already in its presence, or will appear in the foreseeable future (in the case of receivables). At the same time, both subsystems function interconnectedly, providing the production process with the necessary material and financial resources.
Next, we should consider such basic economic categories that are often encountered in the process of managing the activities of an enterprise, such as income and costs. According to the definition accepted in the economic environment, under income is understood as an increase in economic benefits for the enterprise due to the inflow of new assets and repayment of obligations by counterparties, contributing to the growth of the enterprise's capital. It should be noted that the income of the enterprise does not include the contributions of its founders and participants, as well as funds received in the form of a deposit, advance payment, agency agreements, as well as repayment of a loan to the enterprise. In accounting, income is divided into two groups: income from ordinary activities - revenue from the core activities of the enterprise (realization finished products, provision of specialized services); other income - a group of income of the enterprise, including penalties, penalties, fines, receipts to compensate for losses caused to the enterprise; profit of previous years, revealed in reporting year; positive exchange differences; the amount of accounts payable that has expired limitation period; profit from joint work with another organization; proceeds from the transfer of rights to use patents, as well as rights to use the assets of the enterprise; the total of those incomes of the enterprise that were received as a result of emergency circumstances (fire, natural Disasters, man-made disasters): compensation for material losses by the state, insurance compensation, the value of valuables remaining after the write-off of unusable assets, etc.
The second basic category of the enterprise's economy is its expenses. Under expenses an enterprise is understood as a decrease in its economic benefits in the process of an outflow of assets (financial and material resources) and / or the emergence of liabilities, which leads to a decrease in the level of the enterprise's capital (excluding the decrease in deposits by decision of the owners of the enterprise). Expenses include the same two groups: expenses for ordinary species activities - the costs of manufacturing products or providing services that are the core business of the enterprise (in particular, the costs of raw materials, materials, as well as the organization and maintenance of the production process); other expenses - expenses of the enterprise, including penalties, penalties, fines, receipts to compensate for losses caused by the enterprise (for example, to the environment); losses of previous years; amounts accounts receivable for which the limitation period has expired; expenses associated with the provision of assets of the enterprise for use for remuneration; from working together with another organization, etc.
For tax purposes income is divided into sales income and non-operating income, and expenses - into expenses related to production and sale, and non-operating expenses. The essence of these economic categories is clear from their names.
One of the key indicators reflecting the degree of profitability of the enterprise is profitability. Under profitability enterprise is understood as a value that reflects the efficiency of the use of enterprise funds and is the ratio of profit to the average cost of fixed and current assets. In addition to the assessment of the enterprise, profitability as an economic category covers quite a lot of areas, forming the following indicators: profitability of products; profitability of fixed assets; profitability of sales; personnel profitability; return on assets; return on equity; return on invested, permanent capital, etc.
When evaluating the effectiveness of an enterprise and its business processes, profitability analysis is one of the most common methods, due to its high accuracy and ease of practical use.
Next, consider the concept depreciation, which is also a very important category in the field of enterprise economics. Under depreciation is understood as a gradual transfer of the value of fixed production assets to created products through systematic depreciation with the aim of accumulating funds at the enterprise for their subsequent renewal. Any equipment, buildings, structures, computer equipment - all these funds are subject to gradual wear and tear due to the influence of the time factor and their constant use in the production process. Excessive depreciation of fixed assets leads to partial or complete inability of the enterprise to maintain the same production volume, quality of products, introduce innovations, etc.
When analyzing the economics of an enterprise Special attention given to the following parameters:
1. liquidity ratio – a parameter that reflects the ability of the organization to extinguish in a timely manner debentures. This option, in turn, happens:
− current liquidity. It is the ratio of the company's working capital divided by the total amount of current liabilities. This parameter, as a rule, displays whether the company has enough money to pay off all debts on short-term obligations. IFRS parameter - from one to three;
− urgent liquidity . For the calculation, the most liquid working capital of the company is used, which are divided into short-term liabilities of the structure. The most liquid assets include accounts receivable, finance, investments (for a short period of time) and so on. Optimal value according to IFRS - from 0.7 to 0.9;
− net working capital is the difference between a company's total assets and its short-term debt.
2. Turnover ratio (business activity). The indicator reflects how well the company uses its cash (income). Here are a few key options:
− inventory turnover displays how quickly a company sells its balances. The calculation is made as a ratio variable costs to the average price of stocks (the measurement is made in quantitative display);
− turnover receivables shows how many days it takes to receive payment on debts from other companies. The calculation is based on several indicators - the average value of accounts payable for the year, divided by the total profit and the number of days in a year (365);
− turnover credit debt displays how long the company will pay off its debts. The calculation is simple - the average parameter of accounts payable is divided by the total amount of purchases and the number of days in a year (365);
− asset turnover(shown in quantity). The parameter shows how efficiently the company spends fixed assets. The calculation is made according to a simple formula - the total amount of income for the year is divided by the amount of non-current assets (from accounting for fixed assets);
− asset turnover- displays how the company effectively uses the assets that are at its disposal. For calculation, the total amount of profit is divided by the amount of assets.
3. Solvency ratio characterizes whether the company can settle on debts without liquidating the fixed capital.
4. profitability ratio provides information about the performance of the company. There are several types of such coefficients - assets, net and gross profit.
In the conditions of a socially oriented market economy, structural shifts in production and consumption take place, economic ties become more complicated, forms and methods of management change.
In these conditions, there is a need to create an effective and flexible management system; strengthening the orientation of the activities of economic entities on the final results; implementation of current and strategic planning of the activities of organizations; profit maximization while optimizing costs; increasing the role of stimulating the work of workers.
The above circumstances determine the relevance of the problems of improving the economic mechanism. economic mechanism is a set of forms and methods of organizing certain activities. The economic mechanism can be considered on the scale of the country, individual industries or organizations. The economic mechanism of the organization includes the following elements: planning; economic incentives; organizational structures of management; system economic ties; legal norms and methods of regulation, etc.
Planning acts as the main element of the economic mechanism of organizations. Planning determines the main parameters for the development of activities; contributes to the improvement of the structure and growth of volumetric performance indicators, improvement of final financial and economic indicators, optimization of costs, rational use resources (material, financial, labor), increasing the competitiveness of organizations.
Economic stimulus carried out mainly through next system economic levers and incentives: organization of pricing; efficiency of financing and lending; formation of economic incentive funds.
Financial incentives involve the use various systems salary and bonus mechanism.
The efficiency of using economic levers and incentives contributes to the growth of labor productivity, improvement of the quality of goods, fulfillment of contractual obligations, and reduction of costs for the sale of goods.
Under organizational structure of management organizations is usually understood as the composition of the governing bodies or links, the order of subordination between various departments management; distribution of rights and obligations; the nature and forms of the relationship. In other words, organizational structure- this is the internal structure of the governing bodies, with their characteristic relationships.
System of economic relations includes, on the one hand, intra-industry relations, on the other - inter-industry. Improving intersectoral relations involves the rationalization of commodity circulation (the exclusion of unnecessary wholesale links), the choice of suppliers of goods based on an assessment of the competitiveness of their goods.
Legal norms and methods of trade regulation cover the whole range of legislative and regulatory acts in the field of planning, incentives, financing, pricing, etc.
E economic indicator- shows, characterizes the state of the economy, its objects, processes occurring in it in the past, present and future. Economic indicators are one of the most common and effective tools for describing the economy used in economic science and in the management of economic processes.
In the most general view economic indicator includes name, numeric value and unit of measurement.
The composition and structure of economic indicators are one of the most important objects of study economics and at the same time its content element.
System of economic indicators- a set of interrelated, systematized indicators that characterize the economy as a whole, its industry, region, sphere economic activity, a group of homogeneous economic processes.
EP grouping
The structure of economic indicators is highly branched, the indicators are divided into groups according to a number of characteristics.
In ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙii with the division of economic science into macroeconomics and microeconomics, it is customary to single out generalized macroeconomic indicators, characterizing the economy as a whole and its large parts, spheres, and microeconomic indicators,ᴏᴛʜᴏϲᴙ related mainly to the economy of companies, corporations, enterprises, firms.
In the structure of economic indicators, there are absolute, also called quantitative, voluminous, and relative, also called quality. Absolute, volumetric indicators (in economics, in contrast to physics voluminous name any indicators characterizing the quantity of goods, products, money) expressed in natural or monetary units, such as pieces, weight, length, volume, rubles, dollars. Relative indicators represent the ratio of two indicators of the same or different dimensions. In the first case, ϶ᴛᴏ are dimensionless indicators characterizing usually rate of change economic magnitude or ratio, proportions of homogeneous economic values, obtained as a result of their comparison, measured in share terms or as a percentage. In the second case, ϶ᴛᴏ are dimensional indicators that characterize the rate of change of a value over time, the efficiency of resource use, the sensitivity of a value in relation to the factor that caused its change. For example, the efficiency indicator of an automobile engine can be measured by the mass of gasoline consumed per one kilometer of travel, and the return on investment indicator can be measured by the amount of output per one ruble of capital investment.
In the aggregate of relative economic indicators characterizing the dynamics of economic processes, changes in volume indicators, there are indicators of growth (growth rate) and growth (incremental)
Growth rates(growth rates) represent the ratio of the amount of economic product produced or consumed in a given period to the amount produced or consumed in previous period. Most often, an annual, quarterly, monthly period or simply fixed end and start dates are considered. If during the studied period of time the volume of the product has not changed, then the growth rate (growth rate) is equal to one or 100%; if the volume has increased, then the growth rate exceeds 100%, and if it has decreased, then it is below 100%.
Growth indicators characterize the change in the state of the economy, and therefore it is legitimate to call them also indicators of the state or change in the economy. A group of such relative indicators often used in statistics is formed by index indicators or simply indexes. The index represents the ratio of the indicator at a given moment of interest to us to its basic value, fixed in ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ current time, taken as a basis. Indices characterize the relative value of the indicator in comparison with the starting, basic and thus show how the value of the indicator has changed over time. certain period time (from the baseline to the present) Indices of prices, incomes, living standards are widely used.
growth rates, or growth rates, represent the ratio of the increment (increase or decrease) in the amount of produced, sold, consumed product in a given period to the amount of produced, sold, consumed product in the previous, base period. If during the studied period of time, say, for Last year the volume of production has not changed, then the growth rate for ϶ᴛᴏt year is equal to zero; if the volume has increased, then the growth rate is positive; if it has decreased, then the growth rate is negative. Incremental indicators, by analogy with growth indicators, are measured in shares or in percentage terms. Based on physical analogies, growth rates can be called indicators of "economic acceleration".
Economic indicators are divided into a number of groups depending on how they are defined how their numerical values are found and for what purposes, for which tasks indicators can be used.
Values calculated, calculated and analytical indicators are established through calculations based on mathematical dependencies, economic and mathematical models using certain methods. Calculation and analytical indicators can be widely used as initial in determining forecast and planned indicators, as well as indicators of socio-economic programs.
Values of reporting, reporting and statistical, statistical indicators installed on the base financial statements enterprises, organizations, collection and processing of statistical information, sample surveys, observations.
Regulatory it is customary to call indicators that are usually established by management bodies or established in business practice and expressing resource spending rates(raw materials, energy, materials, labor, money) for the production of a unit of output, performance of work, consumption (consumption rates) Indicators in the form of norms and standards (universal norms) also reflect accepted, given ratios, proportions, such as, for example, the rate of accumulation , savings, profits, wages, taxation.
In economics, they also find application scientific and technical indicators, characterizing the achievements of science, engineering, technology.
Given the dependence on areas, sectors of the economy, the type of economic processes characterized by certain economic indicators, it is customary to distinguish such groups, types as indicators of needs, resource provision, production, distribution, exchange, consumption, costs, efficiency, reserves, stability, reliability , risk, prices, demand, supply, income, expenses, standard of living, and many others;
From single, individual, homogeneous indicators, related to primary cells, links, the smallest elements of the economy, are formed group, ϲʙᴏdata, aggregated indicators characterizing economic objects and processes on a larger scale, covering the whole region (regional indicators), industry (industry indicators), the economy of the country as a whole (national economic, general economic indicators), world economy(global indicators)
Along with ϲʙᴏ data, generalized indicators and even as them in the economy can be widely used medium indicators in the form of an average value of an extensive set of quantities. Obviously, the average economic indicator will not necessarily be the arithmetic mean of a group of homogeneous indicators, as people who are unfamiliar with economics, as well as with economic and mathematical statistics, sometimes believe. are considered more representative weighted average indicators. If, for example, "n" people receive annual income A, "m" people - income B and "p" people - income C, then average income D is not calculated as 1/3 (A + B + C), but by the formula:
D = (nA + mB + pC) / (n + m + p)
which gives much more representative results.
The composition of economic indicators is constantly supplemented and updated, and methods for their determination are also being improved. To the greatest extent, economic indicators can be used in analysis, forecasting, planning, and management. economic management success, economic objects and processes essentially depends on the range of indicators used, the degree of completeness, which they characterize the managed objects and processes, on how accurately and correctly these indicators are defined and worked out by economic science.
The system of formation of economic indicators as a basis for analysis
Analysis of the economic activity of the enterprise on the merits is the study of certain economic indicators characterizing various aspects of ϶ᴛᴏth activity.
Economic indicators are grouped into a certain system in ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙii with known criteria. The system of indicators reflecting the activities of the enterprise - ϶ᴛᴏ a set of interrelated values, which comprehensively characterizes the property - financial position organization, its activities and the results of its activities. Material published on http: // site
Types of economic indicators
Economic indicators are divided into two main types − natural and cost(monetary) depending on which meters can be used in calculating these indicators.
Cost indicators will be the most common type of economic indicators. It is worth noting that they make it possible to generalize heterogeneous economic phenomena. For example, if an enterprise uses various types of raw materials and materials, then only cost indicators can provide information on the generalized amounts of receipts, expenditures, and the balance of these objects of labor.
natural indicators will be primary, and cost - secondary, since the latter are calculated on the basis of the former. There are economic phenomena that can only be expressed in monetary terms. For example, the cost of production, distribution costs, profit (loss) and some other indicators can only be cost.
In addition to natural indicators, which express the number material assets in natural units of measurement (pieces, tons, meters, liters, etc.) in economic analysis, a variety of these indicators is also used - conditionally natural indicators. It is worth noting that they allow us to generalize the volume various kinds similar products manufactured by the organization. For example, in the canning industry, canned goods are expressed in conditional cans. Tin, having a certain size and capacity, is taken as conventional unit, and banks of other sizes are recalculated in this conditional bank. Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that the expression of the total volume of production in conditionally natural indicators is achieved.
Quantitative and qualitative economic indicatorsFurther, economic indicators are divided into two types − quantitative and quality- depending on which side (quantitative or qualitative) of economic phenomena, processes and operations is measured in this particular case.
Volumetric and specific economic indicatorsEconomic indicators are divided into two types - voluminous and specific depending on the indicators.
For example, the volume of output, sales volume, production cost, profit are volumetric indicators. It is worth noting that they characterize the volume of this economic phenomenon. Volumetric indicators will be primary, and specific - secondary. Specific indicators are calculated on the basis of volumetric indicators. For example, the cost of production and its value are volume indicators, and the ratio of the first indicator to the second, that is, the cost per ruble of marketable products, is a specific indicator.
Reflection of the activity of the enterprise in economic indicators
Economic indicators are divided into ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙii with those aspects of the enterprise's activities that they characterize. For example, there are indicators that reflect the profitability, profitability, profitability of the organization.
It should be noted that the main indicator reflecting profitability will be the ratio of net profit received during the analyzed period to the average amount of equity for the same period:
Profitability of the organization can be defined as the ratio of profits received from production activities϶ᴛᴏth organization for the reporting period to sales revenue for the same period:
Profitability indicators are relative values of profit. There is a whole system of profitability indicators. Material published on http: // site
In particular, a very important indicator will be the return on assets (property), which is calculated according to the following formula:
R assets = net income / average assets
There are other indicators of profitability. Material published on http: // site
All of them, in essence, are traditionally different ratios of profit and invested capital, or profit and costs incurred.
A number of economic indicators (coefficients) characterize the property and financial condition (position) of the organization.
So, among these indicators are ᴏᴛʜᴏϲᴙ liquidity ratios.
Along with relative indicators financial condition(coefficients) there are also absolute ones, for example, the amounts of overdue receivables and payables, the amount of net current assets, the availability of own working capital, etc.
Do not forget that an important indicator characterizing the financial condition of the enterprise will be working capital turnover. Don't forget that key indicators turnover are the duration of one turnover in days, as well as the number of turnovers for a given period (turnover ratio)
The acceleration of the turnover of working capital indicates the strengthening of the financial condition of the enterprise, the increase in the efficiency of the use of funds (capital), as well as the strengthening business activity of the enterprise.
As well as indicators that the volume of output, taking into account labor intensity its manufacture (standard hours, wages standard cost of processing, net and conditionally pure products
There are also indicators expressing the effectiveness of the use of certain types of production resources at the disposal of the organization (fixed assets, material and labor resources) For example, in terms of fixed assets, there are indicators of capital productivity and capital intensity.
Similar relative indicators are calculated for other types of production resources.
So, for material resources, indicators are calculated material return and material consumption.
Similar indicators can be calculated for labor resources.
Return of labor costs= Volume of production / Cost of living labor
Labor intensity= Cost of living labor / Volume of production
There are, in addition, a number of indicators expressing labor productivity. Do not forget that the most important of these indicators will be average annual output per worker.
In the process economic analysis indicators can also be used to express movement, availability and condition of certain types of production resources. There are indicators that express efficiency of investments made, mainly capital investment.
It should be noted that the main of these indicators will be payback period of capital investments, as well as profit per one ruble of capital investments.
What is the degree of progressiveness of this enterprise? The following indicators answer the ϶ᴛᴏt question: level of mechanization expressing the share of mechanized production processes in the total volume of the latter; level of automation characterizing the share of automated production processes in their total volume.
Finally, there are generalizing economic indicators that characterize the given enterprise itself. First, let's name the cost of the organization, otherwise - the cost of the property complex of the organization. Another indicator can be market value enterprise, which is the value of the shares of this enterprise, ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ depending on market conditions.
A comprehensive assessment of the enterprise's activities is reflected in the construction of the so-called multiplier. It is worth noting that it is an integral, complex indicator, which is based on private indicators that reflect the activities of the enterprise. Distinguish two types of multipliers: standard and subjective. The former can be used in evaluating the activities of any organization, and the latter - only one specific organization. An example of a standard multiplier is the assessment of the probability of bankruptcy of an organization based on the Altman method. This method based on the determination of the sum of five financial ratios. Note that each of them has a certain weight. AT economic literature the essence of the ϶ᴛᴏth method and ways of its application are described in detail.
Subjective multipliers make it possible to study those indicators that are not covered by standard multipliers.
The system of formation of economic indicators considered in the ϶ᴛᴏth article thus serves as the basis for analyzing the economic activity of the organization.
