The formation of an industrial society took place over the course of the 20th century. unevenly in different regions and is associated with scientific and technological revolution. The United States enters this stage in 1914-1929, Western Europe in the 30s-50s, Japan in the 50s-60s, when productive labor began to combine with scientific knowledge and a technical, economic and sociocultural base was created. industrial society, an industrial society has various socio-economic options (“bourgeois”, “socialist”, a combination of “traditional” and “modern”, etc.).

A general description of the industrial society was given by K. Marx. Its essence: exists industrial production, associated with constantly developing technology, new products are being released, and a service sector is being created. All this played a huge civilizational role. As a result, social structures collapsed. traditional society, new social relations arose, a new way of life, the rhythm of work, discipline, the expansion of literacy, horizons. However, the development and functioning of an industrial society are fundamentally different under capitalism and socialism.

Industrial society is characterized by the predominance of accumulated labor over living labor. Accumulated labor takes the form of means of production (or capital): tools, machines, technologies, land, resources, and is fixed in the form of property (private, state, cooperative or public). Hence the importance of the institution of property, which is supported by the entire economic, political and legal system of a given society. Labor is mostly skilled and clearly specialized. Man himself functions as a carrier of such partial labor as a worker (or entrepreneur), and the remaining components of his being are separated from the production process. Developed commodity production means a high degree of division of labor and specialization of production functions. But such a division requires, as a necessary complement, either a market or a coherent social system of regulation.

For a developed industrial society, an appropriate politic system; Normally, it's a democracy. To maintain it, adequate spiritual support is necessary in the form of a system of norms and values.

Right plays essential role in maintaining the existing order. The main principles of the legal order are: 1) the subject of the rule of law - an isolated individual seeking private benefit through "fair competition"; 2) freedom and equality of opportunity provided by commodity-exchange relations; 3) recognition for each person of the right to life, liberty and property, which constitutes the relation of personal independence, and the guarantee of this independence is private property.

The most important values ​​of a bourgeois industrial society are: 1) individualism: a person is the bearer of universally significant values ​​and is responsible for them, there is a priority of the rights of the individual, his freedom, independence from the state (although this leads to anti-humanity, anti-sociality, anti-democratic); 2) rationalism: reason is the main judge in all conflicts; 3) mechanism: the world is represented by a mechanism, its god is a watchmaker, as a result, a mechanical model of the world arises; 4) naturalism: they try to explain the whole world by nature; 5) achievement and success, while morality is not ignored: the requirement of "fair play" according to the rules; 6) private property as the basis of all rights; 7) law as a universal regulator; 8) activity and work, the result of which is the mobility of social relations, technologies, spiritual life; 9) consumerism; 10) universalism: the values ​​of the West are transferred to other cultures; 11) faith in progress and respect for science and technology.

A developed industrial society attaches particular importance to technology, up to technocracy. The reasons for this are: 1) in society, accumulated labor prevails over living labor; 2) without technology it is impossible to achieve the level of production and consumption achieved in other countries; 3) in conditions of national rivalry, more technologically advanced countries can dictate their will to less developed ones; 4) spiritual, historical and cultural factors.

The Renaissance introduced into consciousness the idea of ​​man as an active creator, a world transformer, and the Enlightenment introduced the idea of ​​the active role of the mind in comprehending reality and transforming it.

Social ties in bourgeois society are based on the social class stratification of society. There are deep contradictions between the division of labor, or the intensification of differences between different parts of society, and the need to maintain interaction and unity. This problem is solved by the market with a system of commodity-money circulation with the necessary additions of law, state and bureaucracy.

The rest of the social connections are subordinate to the main one, but they introduce specificity (religious, group, ethnic). Bourgeois society was influenced by Protestantism, evolved Catholicism, then secular regulators of economic ethics acted to an increasing extent.

The prestige of entrepreneurship was high, the moment of the national orientation of business activity was emphasized. As religion lost its importance as an integrating principle, the unity of society more and more developed as a national one based on civil law regulation.

In an industrial society, language was the main bearer of culture; for such a society, national cultures are significant, not world cultures. The growth of nations, nationalism led to two world wars. The growth of education led to democracy. Protestantism gave rise to a mass society: the need to read the Bible led to universal literacy and a common language. Education gave horizontal mobility and facilitated cultural convergence along the vertical. The main trend in culture was the development of education. In ideology, art, philosophy, there was a growth of realism instead of a mythological and religious worldview, illusions were overcome, utilitarianism grew (the symbol of success is money).

Sociocultural contradictions matured in bourgeois society, the most important of which were: 1) social and spiritual alienation; 2) colonialism; 3) antagonism of man and technology; 4) ecological crisis.

The result was a crisis of classical culture. It covered both the secular-enlightenment areas of artistic culture and the religious forms of spirituality. Even in its heyday, classical artistic culture remained the privilege of fairly educated people with a position in society. Education provided the key to the development and understanding of almost any kind of literature and art, personal efforts were needed for assimilation. For the broad masses, meanings, norms and orientations were supplied by the church. Folk culture was preserved in a greatly weakened state, as the remnants of the mythological and magical layer of the former culture.

At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. classical culture is replaced by decadence. The art of decadence is characterized by pessimism and denial of the meaning of life, a statement of the futility of human aspirations, admiration of the motives of decay and death, attempts to find a form of escape from life in refined aesthetics. The cult of beauty was combined in decadence with immorality and extreme pessimism.

industrial society- a term first introduced by Henri de Saint-Simon. He was a French philosopher and sociologist. The formation of such a society occurs as a result of the industrialization of production. The enterprises are actively introducing new technological processes based on scientific and technical inventions. Manual labor is replaced by machine, and in the future by automatic lines. The market is emerging. The role of the administrative apparatus is growing. The country is forming new structure society.

In the process of industrialization of society, there is a process of transition from traditional forms of development to industrial ones. Such a society has the following characteristics:

There is a division of labor. Specialties are emerging.

In production, manual labor is replaced by machine, and in the future by automatic lines operating under the control of 1 person.

Produced goods enter a well-developed market.

There is a development of transport and means of communication.

The mobility of society is increasing. There is a process of flow of people from the village to the city.

The income growth of the population is increasing and purchasing power of people.

A new structure of society is being formed.

Features of an industrial society

In the process of formation of an industrial society, phenomena are observed that were absent before. These include:

The mobility of the population is increasing. This is observed in cities when people change jobs in order to improve their conditions.

With an industrial society formed, the number of rural workers does not exceed 50% of the total number of workers.

Stability alternates with crises, because this period is characterized by uneven development.

Operation at an accelerated pace natural resources. Their irrational use is not taken into account.

The basic component of an industrial society is private ownership of the means of production.

There is fierce competition in the market.

The production of industrial products is approximately equal to the output of rural products.

The whole society is divided into classes.

Background of an industrial society

In the process of formation of an industrial society, feudal relations develop into capitalist ones. This is accompanied by the following events:

The formation of 2 new classes is observed in the city: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

The capitalist system is being formed.

In search of resources and cheap labor, the colonization of underdeveloped countries begins.

going on scientific and technological revolution which significantly improves the standard of living of society.

The formation of an industrial society does not mean the creation of conditions of equal opportunities, however, with maximum return, workers have good prospects for the future.

Industrial revolution in European countries. Table.

The countries where the industrial revolution first took place include England, France and Germany. The events that took place in them are presented in the table.

What do traditional and industrial societies have in common?

Despite the fact that traditional and industrial society have many differences, they have common features. These include:

Both societies have economics and politics.

Above the entire process of development of the country is the apparatus of power.

No matter how both societies develop, social inequality is always present.

Economics of an industrial society

With the formation of an industrial society, the economy undergoes significant changes. They are as follows:

Enterprises begin mass production of goods. This is facilitated by the creation of pipelines.

For more high level rising movement financial flows. This is achieved by the development of the banking sector.

In order to facilitate the formation of initial capital, such a thing as a loan appears.

The market is expanding. This is manifested in its globalization.

As a result of overproduction, crises periodically occur.

Contradictions between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie are constantly observed.

The basis for improving the economy is the division of technological operations to obtain products. They are performed by different people. This gives significant growth labor productivity.

social structure

With the development of industrial society, changes take place in the social structure. They are as follows:

Due to the migration of peasants from the countryside to the city, a new class appears - the proletariat.

Owners industrial enterprises form the bourgeoisie. Basically, these are former landowners who came from the village.

The middle class is emerging. It includes representatives of the petty bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia.

A division is also taking place among the working class into skilled and unskilled workers.

Mass culture

In parallel with the industrialization of society, its culture also increases. The population cannot be engaged only in labor activity. At the end of the working day, rest is needed, which is expressed in the expression of one's own needs. The manifestation of popular culture is as follows:

1. Reading literature in free time.
2. Watching TV programs.
3. Going to theaters and cinemas.
4. Passion for sports performances.

The industrialization of society makes it possible to make many useful discoveries, which, if used correctly, should only benefit the development of mankind.

The era of traditional society sooner or later falls into decay. It is being replaced by a new type of society - industrial society, the basis of which is technical progress.

An industrial society is a society formed in the process and as a result of the rapid development of machine production. Industry becomes the leading branch of production in an industrial society.

The impetus for the development of industrial society was the scientific and technological revolution, which contributed to the mechanization and automation of production.

Prerequisites for the formation of an industrial society

Industrial society, as a new socio-economic formation, began its journey in the first half of the 19th century. Its formation is due to major changes in various fields people's lives - political, cultural, economic.

Changes in the political sphere include the collapse of empires and the emergence of nation-states, the democratization of the political system. In the field of culture, the following changes have taken place:

• growth of literacy of the population;
• development of science and media;
• strengthening the role of natural and technical sciences;
• weakening the influence of the church on society.

The main change in economic sphere the life of society is the capitalization of production, due to the development of entrepreneurial activity.

The characteristics of an industrial society are

• redistribution of workload: more people begins to work in the sphere of production, the number of people employed in the sphere of agriculture is reduced;
• influx of population into cities – urbanization;
• increasing the level of literacy of the population;
• an increase in the rate of production due to the mechanization of enterprises and the principle of division of labor;
• emergence of private property and a competitive market.

Consequences of the industrialization of society

Like any other process, the formation of an industrial society has both negative and positive consequences.

To negative consequences refers to the alternation of periods of growth and development with periods of recession and crisis - a feature market relations; damage to the environment is the result of an increase in industrial production (pollution of territories and irrational use of natural resources).

Positive consequences: improved quality of life for people; mechanization of production, allowing to reduce physical activity; the emergence of a developed infrastructure; constant development of science and technology, the introduction of new scientific achievements in life.

Industrial society is not the last stage in the development of mankind. After it, the time will come for a post-industrial society, in which information plays an important role. What will follow him - one can only guess.

1. Organizing time.

2. Updating knowledge on the topic: "Industrial revolution: achievements and problems"

Written survey

Option 1.

II. Henry Ford

III. How does a traditional society differ from an industrial one? Give examples of technical inventions of the 19th century.

Option 2.

I. Do you agree with the statements:

II. Henry Ford

III. What is the industrial revolution and its completion? Give examples of technical inventions of the 19th century. Give examples of technical inventions of the 19th century.

3. Learning new material.

Teacher's lecture. Write down the main points in your notebook.

The changes that have taken place in industrial society ( abstract title )

1) "The earth threw out its children."

The German scientist Werner Sombart called the XIX century. the time when "the earth threw out her children."

The growth of cities is one of the features of an industrial society. This process has accelerated early XIX in. and continued thereafter. The rapid growth of cities was caused, firstly, by the overpopulation of the countryside, due to the improvement of land use and the introduction of advanced farming methods, as a result of which many workers were released; secondly, the decline of small towns, associated with the decline of handicraft production and petty trade, as well as changes in transport: with the development of railway transport, the centers of industry moved to new areas. Therefore, in search of work, people were forced to change their place of residence.

The masses of the population, who have lived on earth for centuries, begin to move and leave their native places. Leaving the village gave rise to emigration, people left for other countries. Many villagers moved to big cities or new industrial centers of their country. In connection with the growth of agricultural productivity, it became possible to feed the big cities.

In Great Britain, this "country of cities", nine out of ten English people lived in cities. In France, only three people out of ten lived in cities, but everywhere urban population grew at a very fast pace. It is especially important that for the first time in the history of the city began to dominate economic life.

ü The growth of cities, an increase in the number of urban and a decrease in the rural population.

People on the move. From the 20s. 19th century began the mass migration of Europeans to other continents. They left England, Germany, the Scandinavian countries, Eastern and Southern Europe. were leaving for latin america, Canada, Australia, South Africa, but most of the emigrants went to the USA. New York became the main port where emigrants arrived. To get there from Hamburg or Liverpool, it took 12 days of sailing, from Naples - 21 days. On Ellis Island in New York Bay, a "station" was created for emigrants, where they were registered and received permission to enter the country. But first they were checked by the medical service. From 6 to 10% of those who arrived in the United States were refused for medical reasons. Those who received permission were put on a ferry and sent to Manhattan. Here in the center of New York, they were left to their own devices.

Most of the newcomers settled in with friends, parents, countrymen. The city consisted of quarters, each of which had its own language and customs. Emigrants were a cheap labor force, willing to the most difficult working conditions.

ü A sharp increase in emigration from European countries to the USA and other countries of America. (In the 19th century, 50 million people left Europe, of which 35 million went to the USA)

2) Changes in social structure

Disappear estates, the class structure becomes more complicated society. Throughout the 19th century the industrial revolution changed the social structure of Western European society. The number of bourgeoisie and hired industrial workers employed in capitalist production increased by the beginning of the 20th century. they became the main social groups of industrial society. As for the main classes of traditional society - landowning nobility and peasants, their numbers decreased. These changes occurred depending on the pace of modernization.

In England, as you know, the classic landlord and peasant economy disappeared already in the 18th century, the revolution in France destroyed the property of the lords on land, and in the USA there were never classes of traditional society. The landlord and peasant economy was preserved in the first half of the 19th century. in such countries of the second echelon of modernization as the Austrian Empire, Italy, in the German states. However, during the period of the Napoleonic Wars, reforms were carried out in a number of German states and in the Austrian Empire, which contributed to the development of a capitalist economy in the countryside. Former landowners turned into capitalist entrepreneurs who used hired labor, a significant part of the peasants became farmers or laborers, therefore, they were included in the capitalist economy.

In a number of countries, estates were legally abolished, and where they remained, estate partitions were destroyed in the process of modernization. Stratification also occurred within the classes of society themselves. There was a large, middle and petty bourgeoisie, the working class and the peasantry were heterogeneous. A significant part of the people in general was difficult to classify into any particular class. For example, a small-land peasant was forced to simultaneously work in his field to work for hire for a large landowner. Who was he - a peasant or a hired worker?

ü The old classes are disappearing. The number of bourgeoisie and hired workers is growing

New social structure societies:

ü The dominance of the aristocracy is a thing of the past. The aristocracy merges with the bourgeoisie, which leads to the formation of a new upper class.

Aristocracy old and new. K. mid-nineteenth century. the European aristocracy had to largely change its way of life, otherwise it was impossible to survive.

Many aristocrats still owned lands, and their life was connected more with the village than with the city. Spacious houses allowed to receive many distinguished guests. Libraries, art collections, social events, hunting all made life enjoyable. Marriages, as a rule, were concluded in their own circle, so aristocratic families were connected by family ties.

In England, boys from such families were trained from childhood for political activity. After graduating from private privileged schools, they studied at Oxford or Cambridge. Then the parliament became the arena of their activity. In the middle of the XIX century. 4/5 of the members of the House of Commons in the English Parliament were landowners, and most of the ministers graduated from elite educational institutions.

But gradually, with the development of industrial society, the dominant position of the aristocracy is fading into the past. Part of the land is being sold urban development, forest holdings are decreasing. New times place new demands on those who want to make a career. The landed aristocracy occupies leading positions in banks, industrial companies, and in the colonial administration.

Many aristocratic families are losing their wealth. And although the nobility treated the wealthy "upstarts" with contempt, many offspring of ancient families marry the heirs of large fortunes, and this leads to a merger of the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, the formation of a new "upper class".

ü The leading role in society is played by the big bourgeoisie.

New bourgeoisie. In the 19th century in the economic and political life of states, the bourgeoisie is asserting itself more and more loudly. Great success is achieved by the one about whom they said "a person who owes everything to himself." You already know the biographies of such people, just remember Benjamin Franklin.

A classic example of the rise of such a person in society is given by the English writer W. Thackeray: “Old Pump sweeps the shop, runs on sleds, becomes a trusted clerk and companion; Pump the second becomes the head of the company, rakes in more and more money, marries his son to the count's daughter. Pump III does not quit the bank, but the main thing in his life is to become the father of Pump IV, and his offspring already by right of inheritance rules over our nation of snobs.

In the 19th century at the head of large-scale industry and banks were representatives of the bourgeoisie, who had made millions of fortunes. They worked very hard, devoting time and effort to their work. Their life was modest, but many aspired to become part of the aristocracy. The politician Disraeli received from Queen Victoria the title of Lord of Bickensfield, the brewer Guinness and the banker Rothschild became barons, and Krupp and Siemens received titles of nobility in Germany.

ü The middle class appears - the backbone of society

Middle class. A new phenomenon in the public life of the XIX century. was the emergence of the middle class, uniting the most diverse sectors of society - the petty bourgeoisie, employees of private companies and government agencies. The middle class also included people of free professions - engineers, inventors, doctors, teachers, officers, lawyers, etc. One of the main signs of belonging to the middle class was a stable financial situation, although different for individual layers.

Among the representatives of the middle class in the second half of the XIX century. the category of lawyers stands out in particular. With the formation of the rule of law, civil society, the development of economic life, the need for lawyers has increased. They wrote constitutions, drew up codes of laws, executed wills, advised bankers, entrepreneurs, and were engaged in legal proceedings. Many political figures were lawyers by training. The middle class gives "stability" to society. As a rule, these people do not approve of social upheavals, preferring reforms to revolutions.

ü The working class is divided into skilled workers and unskilled workers.

Highly different working class. In the 19th century the working class is formed industrialized countries it becomes uneven. Highly skilled workers stand out, some historians called them the labor aristocracy. Their position at the enterprise was strong, the salary allowed them to give technical education to their sons, sometimes their children became employees. It was already a step up the social ladder. in England at the beginning of the 20th century. such workers accounted for a third of the total. Unskilled workers earned half as much, but sometimes family income was increased by working children. In low-income families, any expense, such as buying shoes, forced to save on food, meals were canceled for several days. Half of the English workers could only buy meat for dinner once a week, and even then it was purchases made at 11 o'clock in the evening. Why at this time? Traditionally, in industrial cities, most of the population purchased food on Saturday, after paying for a week's work. By eight o'clock in the evening, the shops in the rich neighborhoods were closing, and in the poor, life was just beginning. The shops are brightly lit, the butchers shout the virtues of their wares all along the street.

Here is a description of a Saturday evening in a working-class district of London, made by a contemporary: “Whole families walk along the sidewalks: a mother pushes a stroller, in which, in addition to the child ... there are also bags and packages, the father carries his son on his shoulders ... Concerts are arranged near the taverns. .. By 11 o'clock in the evening the aristocracy of the working class ... is already stocking up on provisions. Then emaciated, emaciated women appear in black straw hats, with baskets in their hands. They shyly line up outside the butcher shops, and the butchers sell them all the leftovers for a cheap fee: pieces of bones, offal, trimmings, etc.

They also paid for the apartment on Saturdays, and after missing two payments, an order was issued to vacate the premises.

Women's and children's labor. Looking into the area of ​​London in the evening, where the candy and tobacco factories were located, one could see tired girls walking arm in arm in hats decorated with huge bunches of multi-colored ostrich feathers. These are factory girls. From the age of 13 they are in a factory, from 14 they are independent, as they pay their mothers for an apartment and a table 5-6 shillings a week. Women also worked in factories, but most often widows or wives of drunkards and criminals. A decent English worker preferred his wife to take care of the house and children. Many women worked as domestic servants, and with the development of entrepreneurship, new professions appeared for them: telephone operators, typists, secretaries. For their work, women received much less than men.

“A child of poverty, baptized instead of a font in tears,” wrote the English poet Langori about “factory children.” Despite a number of parliamentary laws, children continued to be used in the most difficult work, including in coal mines. Some worked at the bottom of the shaft, loading carts pulled by ponies with coal. Others, sitting in complete darkness, had to open and close the doors leading to the underground galleries every time a cart passed. Such mind-numbing work was done by twelve-year-olds.

Only in 1893, a law was passed in England prohibiting the employment of children under 11 years old (before that, children from 8 years old were allowed to work). The working day lasted 6.5 hours, and after work 3 times a week, according to the law, they had to go to school. But the children were so tired that they slept during the lessons.

"Factory children" had a bad complexion, stooped shoulders, narrow chest. It seemed that they were a different people, they were so different from those who did not have to ruin their health in factories.

ü A movement for the emancipation (rights) of women has arisen

Women's Equalization Movement. The desire for freedom and independence was also expressed in the women's movement for equal rights, emancipation. This movement was initiated by the French Revolution. But equality did not extend to women for long - after 1793, women's clubs and newspapers were closed.

In 1840, American women filed a petition to Congress for equal rights with men, but received no answer.

Until the 70s. 19th century women did not enjoy equal property rights with men, and in the family they were subordinate to their husband or father. In England, women won the right to vote in 1918. Emmeline Pankhorst was at the head.

4. Consolidation.

Task: read § 4, Give a detailed answer to the question: What technical inventions have changed everyday life people in the 19th century? What were these changes? ( trams, newspapers, sewing machines, comfortable living, fashion, food, telephone, typewriter ) Homework. §§ 3-4, complete the written assignment.

Grade 8, 07/08 THEME 1. The formation of an industrial society. Man in a new era.

LESSON number 4. Science. Creation of a scientific picture of the world

Lesson Objectives:

Educational: to determine the trends in the development of scientific thought in Europe in the 19th century, to consider the achievements of scientific thought in the 19th century.

Developing: to develop independent work skills, the ability to fill out a table and highlight the main thing in the text.

Educational: to cultivate respect for the power of the human intellect, faith in the greatness of science serving man

Lesson type: learning new material

Teaching methods: reproductive and b / n

Forms of work: teacher's introductory remarks, independent work with a textbook, work to fill in the table

1. Organizing time.

2. Learning new material.

1) Reasons for the rapid development of physics and other natural sciences.

Teacher's story.

XIX - early XX century - a special time in the development of science. Great discoveries follow one after another. It seemed as if some invisible magician had pulled back the curtain hiding the secrets of nature and man. But that wizard was the human mind.

New discoveries destroy the idea that nature is subject to the exact laws of mechanics.

We will consider only some of them. You will learn a lot in the lessons of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, etc. And here we will talk about those discoveries in the field of physics and natural sciences, without which the development of an industrial society would not have been possible.

Life itself demanded to know the laws of mechanics and electricity, the properties of materials and substances used in production, to find ways to measure speed, pressure, etc. At the same time, technological progress made it possible to create the instruments necessary for scientific research.

The main feature of the natural scientific discoveries of the second half of the XIX century. was that they radically changed the idea of ​​the structure of matter, space, time, movement, the development of living nature, the place of man in nature, and the origin of life on Earth.

2) Scientific achievements of the 19th century.

Filling in the table is organized, see pages 39-44.

TOPIC 11. REFORMS AND REFORMERS IN RUSSIA in the 19th century

The nineteenth century is called "the age of capitalism and industrial civilization", "the age of rationalism and revolutions", "the age of civilization and culture". This century developed under the sign of two revolutions - the Great French and the English industrial.

An industrial society is characterized by:

The rapid rise of productive forces, the growth of mechanization, automation and concentration of production, the spread of machine systems closely linked into one technological chain - not only at an individual enterprise, but also throughout the country, a number of countries (international monopolies);

Quick weapons (smokeless powder, long-range artillery, armored ships, aircraft, tanks, etc.);

The transformation of the natural sciences into a productive force (the emergence of steam engines, internal combustion engines, electricity, etc.);

The attempts of some humanities (Marxism) to influence the historical process;

The colonial division of the world and the emergence of huge colonial empires. What was new was not only that the European countries almost completely divided the colonial periphery among themselves, but also that the colonies became the object of investment of European and North American capital, as they provided cheap raw materials, cheap labor and guaranteed profits;

AT social sphere- the formation of a class of industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat; confrontation between the bourgeoisie and hired workers as the main classes of capitalist society; the tendency towards the disintegration of the peasantry into entrepreneurs and hired workers;

In the political sphere - the establishment and spread of bourgeois democracy; formation of republics or constitutional monarchies;

The growth of the homogeneity of society on a national and global scale, creating conditions for economic crises, including the world ones;

Crisis of ideas of humanism; “a “mechanized” standardized, devoid of national differences, a mass culture that broke with the legacy of the era of humanism, which increasingly became an industrialized anti-culture” arose;

Increasing the importance of non-religious ideologies - both justifying the existing course of the historical process (liberalism, positivism), and alternative to it (Marxism). The main carrier of the alternative ideology was the intelligentsia, which contributed to the transformation of the crowd into conscious masses of people.

In the 19th century everything in Europe is in motion, the face of the continent is changing in a matter of decades. By the middle of the century, it became obvious that all the main events that determine the history of mankind are taking place in the countries of Europe and in the United States, which are experiencing a period of sustainable industrial growth. In 1830, England made 50% metal, 100% machines, being the "workshop of the world." In the 1870-1880s. The USA and Germany, having modernized production, will overtake it. It was at this time that a division into developed and underdeveloped countries will appear. To the developed countries, i.e. to the countries of the "first echelon" of the development of capitalism, they will include the states of Western (with the exception of the Pyrenees) and partly of Central Europe, as well as Scandinavia. They were distinguished by a relatively early and organic, mainly under the influence of internal factors, maturation of capitalism, minimal remnants of a traditional society, strong liberal traditions and parliamentary democracy. About economic power of these countries was evidenced, in particular, by a doubling of GDP from 1800 to 1870, despite a significant increase in population. On the other hand, population explosion 1800-1850, when the population of England tripled, Norway, Sweden, Holland doubled, stimulated economic growth. The development of such means of communication as water transport and railways (from 1844 until the end of the century, the network railways in Europe will increase by 99 times), will lead to an increase in trade and migration of the population.

The rest of Europe will be classified as underdeveloped countries, or "second tier" countries, which are characterized by a "catching up type of development." Him distinctive features: active planting of elements of capitalism by the state; rapid and spasmodic development with skipping or rearranging individual phases of development; the preservation of significant remnants of feudalism; conflict in social relations within the country.

Economic and social change led to political modernization. From 1815 to 1848, Europe experienced three major revolutionary crises, during which the main trends in the development of the social movement were formed: moderate liberal, radical democratic and socialist. The first was represented by the upper and middle classes, the second by the middle and petty bourgeoisie, the third by the proletariat and the intelligentsia (some scholars call this social stratum intellectuals). The bourgeoisie sought to find a compromise with both the aristocracy and the lower classes. As a result, in selected countries elements of civil society and representative democracy were established. At the same time, the thinking part of society increasingly asked itself: "In what way - revolutionary or reformist - is capitalism able to come to renewal and transformation, and is it capable of this at all?" Attempts to answer this question led to the birth of socialist teachings, the creation of international socialist organizations - the First (1864) and Second (1889) Internationals, the formation of socialist parties that used the greatest influence in Germany and France and have become a kind of alternative to governments.

characteristic feature of the European Development XIX in. was the formation of national ideology and national movements. The national idea was embodied in the creation of independent states, such as Germany and Italy, in the movement for autonomy and self-determination of the peoples who inhabited Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Russia. Thanks to the national liberation struggle, independent states arose - Romania, Serbia and Bulgaria. At all, national interest determined the whole course international relations from the second half of XIX in. In the US as a result civil war 1861-1865 slavery was abolished and a period of radical economic transformation began in the southern states.

During this period, the main countries of the periphery (in the future - " developing countries”) were colonies or semi-colonies of mainly European states. They could not resist European expansion and were subjected to predatory exploitation. The colonies made up 55% of the land, 70% of their population lived in British possessions, 10% in French, 2% in German. In many of them, there were processes of deindustrialization and deurbanization, wars for independence broke out, popular uprisings against the colonialists, and military coups were carried out. From 1800 to 1870, the per capita GDP of Brazil, Mexico, China, India, Indonesia and Egypt fell by 10-12%. A number of countries "deprived" of colonies, during the transition to an industrial society, sought to redistribute the world. It turned out that the very fact of the presence of the colonial system pushed the peoples to world cataclysms.

The progress of industrial society became especially noticeable by the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. The fact that the world is entering a new era was heralded by the natural science revolution: the discovery of the electron and radioactivity, the emergence of quantum mechanics, the theory of relativity. It provided, first of all, a breakthrough to sustainable and rapid economic progress while simultaneously restructuring the economy. In 1870-1900. world industrial production quadrupled.

At the same time, fundamental social changes took place. Center public life moved from the village to the city. If in 1830 25% of the population of England, 60% of Italy, 70% of Prussia, 90% of Spain were associated with agriculture, then by 1900 the urban population equaled or exceeded the rural population. The way of life changed - cars, trams, metro, telephone, cinema appeared, the life of the townspeople became more comfortable, the pace of life accelerated. At the same time, progress gave rise to new contradictions in the economic, social, political and military spheres, creating the ground for more and more conflicts between countries. These contradictions somewhat weakened the state of euphoria from the endless possibilities of the human mind, in which Western civilization was at the beginning of the 20th century.

It was in the 19th century. there will be a clear division of Europe into West and East. A number of European countries of the "second echelon" (for example, Austria, Prussia) will gravitate towards the West and by the end of the 19th century. incorporated into it. This will not happen to Russia, it will become a kind of symbol of the East on the European continent.