Economic development of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century. Features of the economic development of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century Features of the Russian economy in the late 19th century

By the beginning of the XX century. Russia has a capitalist economic system. (increase in the number of entrepreneurs, growth of employees),

The formation of monopoly capitalism in Russia had its own characteristics:

1) with high rates of development of industry and the financial and banking system in the country, there was a backward agriculture;

2) with the weakness of the Russian bourgeoisie, there was an active intervention of the state in the economy, patronized the creation of large enterprises and financial and industrial associations;

3) foreign capital actively penetrated the country.

World economic crisis early 20th century

also affected the Russian economy, where production also decreased, prices rose, and the number of unemployed increased. Crisis of 1900-1903 was replaced by stagnation in 1904-1908. The reason is the Russo-Japanese war and revolution, they led to the absence financial resources, reducing investment in industry and agriculture, to the disorganization of production and management.

The consequences of the crisis and the subsequent stagnation affected the agricultural countries most strongly.

With routine cultivation of the land, low productivity, adverse weather conditions, there were always hungry years in the country. To cover the costs, the tsarist government resorted to foreign loans, the size of which increased sharply.

Despite the development of capitalism in Russia, the socio-political system remained the same: the tsar had power, the nobility occupied a privileged position, the clergy were the second privileged class.

The most disenfranchised group of the population was the peasantry, it was formally free, but suffered from a lack of land, did not have the means to purchase modern tools, and were subjected to corporal punishment. The proletariat was subjected to cruel exploitation (working day 11-14 hours). Living conditions were extremely difficult. They were limited in their education, which required personal funds. In Russia, the prerequisites for a socio-political crisis were being created.

The symptoms of the crisis were the growing labor movement and peasant unrest. Practically in all industrial regions of the country in 1900-04. there were about a thousand strikes,

The reasons for the mass protests of workers and peasants were not only the economic crisis, poverty and hunger, but also the domestic policy pursued by the tsarist government.

Everyone expected changes from Nicholas II, who ascended the throne in 1894. They practically did not take steps in resolving the land issue for the peasantry, in improving the condition of the workers. Crisis phenomena in the economy, socio-political instability in the country, the inability of the king to get it out of a dangerous situation, his short-sightedness and intransigence - all this became the reason for the creation of political or public organizations in the country to protect their interests or to protect and help the king and his government.

It was during these years that the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party was created in Russia, which later split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks; the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), which fought for the transfer of land to the peasants; The Union of Zemstvo-Constitutionalists is a liberal party.

Russo-Japanese War

In order to counter the expansionism of Germany, which was striving to redistribute and seize the colonies, there was a rapprochement between Russia and France, and then with England - the Entente alliance, against the Triple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.

Having lost interest in the Balkans, Russia began to pay attention in foreign policy to the Far East. In order to develop its territories economically, Russia began building the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), and created the Port Arthur naval base on the Liaodong Peninsula. In 1900, Russian troops entered Manchuria. In these actions, Russia ran into the interests of Japan, which also sought to establish itself in the area.

Negotiations between Russia and Japan in 1903 on the division of spheres of influence here were fruitless. Russia and Japan began to prepare for war. The war began without an official announcement—January 27, the Tsushima rout ended the war. The main reasons for Russia's defeat in the war were mediocre military leadership, insufficient material and technical supply of the army, theft of officials who did not provide the army with the necessary equipment and weapons.

In August 1905

under the mediation of the United States in Portsmouth, a peace treaty was signed, according to which Russia transferred to Japan the southern part of Sakhalin Island, the right to lease the Liaodong Peninsula with Port Arthur, and recognized Korea as a sphere of influence of Japan.

This war had a noticeable impact on the balance of power in the world and predetermined the nature of many political processes - it negatively affected the international prestige of Russia.

It also had a severe impact on the country's economy. Such is the domestic and foreign political situation in the country, which led to the first Russian revolution in 1905.

The aggravation of socio-political contradictions in Russia was aggravated by its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War. By the end of 1904, Russia stood on the threshold of a revolution. In order to reduce discontent in society, the security department sought to keep workers' organizations under control.

Not only provocateurs were introduced into them, but their own organizations of workers were created. One of these organizations in St. Petersburg was headed by the priest Gapon. On January 3, 1905, the workers of the capital's Putilov factory went on strike. On January 8, the strike took on a city-wide character. It was decided to hold a peaceful procession to the king with a petition outlining the needs of the population.

the procession to the Winter Palace of workers was shot. This event went down in Russian history as Bloody Sunday.

In response to this atrocity of the tsarist authorities, protests of workers swept across the country, there was an uprising of sailors on the battleship "Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky", peasant riots, the first people's body of power in Russia, the Council of Authorized Deputies, was created in Ivanovo-Voznesensk.

In October 1905

The political situation called for urgent action. Frightened by the scope of the revolutionary movement, Nicholas II made concessions and on October 17, 1905, the Manifesto "On the Improvement of the State Order" was issued, which provided for the convocation of State Duma, received legislative rights, the introduction of certain democratic freedoms.

A significant part of the participants in the liberal movement saw in the Manifesto the realization of their political aspirations and united in the "Union of October 17" (Octobrists).

Soon the Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) and the Union of the Russian People (nationalist Black Hundreds) and others were formed. All of them were for the preservation of the monarchy. In December 1905 the workers in the largest cities took up arms. In Moscow, the armed uprising, prepared by the Moscow Committees of the RSDLP by the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, outgrew the general strike of December 7-9. In 1905-1907. revolutionary actions of the peasants took place throughout the country.

The All-Russian strike in October 1905 had a particularly great influence on the peasant movement. the "Peasant Union" was created, and in April 1906 - the political organization of the peasants - the "Labor Group".

In 1906 the revolutionary movement began to decline. The results of the revolution were concessions to the autocracy, a change in the socio-political system of Russia, the introduction of a new representative body - the State Duma, which meant the introduction of parliamentarism in the country, the abolition of censorship, permission to create political parties, trade unions, expanding the circle of voters.

In the elections to the First State Duma, held in February - March 1906, the Cadets Party achieved the greatest success.

The central issue of the State Duma was agrarian. However, by decree of July 8, 1906, the Duma was dissolved. In the field of economy, the government began to carry out agrarian reforms, in industry - to introduce regulatory measures in favor of workers

In the post-revolutionary period, the tsarist government, headed by P.L.

Stolypin was forced, on the one hand, to make certain concessions to the bourgeoisie, workers and peasants, on the other hand, it intensified repressions. The "Regulations on Enhanced and Emergency Security" were issued. Mass arrests, trials, executions of participants in revolutionary uprisings were carried out.

In 1907-1911. Stolypin determined government policy. In 1906, a course of socio-political reforms was proclaimed.

At the suggestion of Stolypin, agrarian reform began in the country:

allowed peasants to voluntarily leave the rural community with the allocation of cuts to them, land plots on farms. According to the law of June 14, 1910 No.

such separation from the community became mandatory. Peasants could sell and buy land and take loans from the Peasants' Bank to buy land.

The resettlement of peasants from the central regions of Russia to the sparsely populated outlying regions (Siberia, the Far East) was encouraged, where the settlers received plots at the expense of the state land fund. All these measures were aimed at eliminating the peasant shortage of land, at increasing the marketability of the peasant economy.

The implementation of reforms in agriculture, the adoption of a number of protective laws in industry partially removed social tension, stabilized the situation in industry, increased purchasing power population.

Under the leadership of Stolypin, a number of major bills were developed to reform local government, the introduction of universal primary education, religious tolerance.

However, since 1910

the socio-political situation in the country began to worsen again. In 1911 Stolypin was mortally wounded. The agricultural issue was not resolved. Only about 15% of the settlers were able to create farms in the areas of new development. The bulk of the peasants still needed land and demanded a redistribution of landlord estates. The nobility was dissatisfied with Stolypin's reforms and demanded new loans and benefits from the government. Burdened with taxes, the bourgeoisie demanded their reduction and did not reduce the level of exploitation of workers.

The wave of workers' strikes and peasant revolts began to grow again. Their number increased sharply after the Lena events, when in April 1912 the striking workers of the Lena gold mines were shot by order of the authorities.

In 1912, the number of striking workers in the country amounted to about 730 thousand, but the further development of the revolutionary situation was halted by the outbreak of the world war.

A new phenomenon was the creation of non-state universities, where representatives of all segments of the population could receive education.

Science - For outstanding contribution to world science laureates Nobel Prize steel in 1904

I.P. Pavlov, and in 1908 - I.I. Mechnikov.

Literature is the silver age. critical realism continued to develop in literature, represented in the works of A.P. Chekhov, M. Gorky, S.A. Yesenin.

K.S. Stanislavsky and V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko opened the Art Theater

Art - abstract art - Malevich, Chagall

Music - Rachmaninoff, Scriabin, Stravinsky

Russia at the beginning of the 20th century

To better understand what Russia was like at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, I want to quote the words of Leo Tolstoy from his letter to Nicholas 2 dated January 16, 1906. None of the historians described the situation in Russia of that era better.

Russia is in a position of increased protection, that is, outside the law.

The army and police (explicit and covert) are increasing. The prisons are overcrowded. Even workers are now equated with political prisoners. Censorship has reached the absurdity of prohibitions, which it has never reached.

Religious persecution has never been so strong. As a result, those 100 million, on which the power of Russia is based, are impoverished. So impoverished that hunger has now become a normal phenomenon. Even 50 years ago, under Nicholas 1, the prestige of tsarist power was very high. Now it has fallen so that even representatives of the lower classes criticize not only the government, but even the king.

Lev Tolstoy

Population

The first official census (without economic overtones) in the Russian Empire took place in 1897 and counted 125 million people in the country.

The second census of 1914 recorded 178.1 million people (an increase of 53.1 million over 17 years). The population growth rate was high and it was calculated that if Russia manages to pass without external and internal shocks until the middle of the 20th century, then the population in the country will be about 350 million inhabitants.

Russia at the beginning of the 20th century was a multinational country.

The same 1914 census recorded the following composition of the population:

Russians - 44.6%
Ukrainians - 18.1%
Poles - 6.5%
Jews - 4.2%
Belarusians - 4.0%
Kazakhs - 2.7%
Other nations - each no more than 2%

The official language of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century is Russian.

At the same time, there was no harassment on the basis of language, and other peoples could use their language for communication.

Estates

Important characteristic Russian population beginning of the 20th century - the preservation of estates. The bulk of the population are peasants, whose estate made up just over 80% of the country's population.

The nobility in Russia was about 1.5%, but it was the leading estate that held power together. The nobility was not united, they were divided into hereditary and personal.

The problem of the nobility was acute in Russia, since, under the reform of 1861, the nobles were formally deprived of all exclusive land use rights.

This was the starting point, after which the positions of the nobility began to deteriorate, and with them the power of the Emperor became less and less strong. As a result, the events of 1917 happened.

A separate important estate in Russia is the clergy. At the beginning of the 20th century, it was divided into categories:

Black (monastic). Monks who have taken a vow of celibacy.
White (parish). Priests who are allowed to have a family.

Despite the important status of the clergy, the church continued to be under the control of the state.

autonomy

Autonomy is feature development of the Russian state.

The empire, adding new lands to its composition, in most cases granted autonomy to these lands, preserving their national traditions, religion, and so on. The most complete autonomy was in Finland, which had its own parliament, legislation and money.

I specifically emphasized this system of preserving autonomy, which was relevant back in the early 20th century, so that you can compare how Russia annexed regions and how Western countries did it. Suffice it to recall that as a result of the colonization of North America by Europeans, the Indians (the indigenous population was almost completely exterminated, and the part that remained alive was placed in special reservations - cattle pens, it is impossible to get out of.

Autonomy was also granted to the peoples of the Baltics and Poland in the west.

The autonomy of these regions was curtailed in terms of political freedoms, since, for example, the Polish population always advocated the restoration of the Polish state, and therefore actively fought underground against Russia.

The best indicator of the preservation of the cultural integrity of the autonomies was religion.

Despite the dominance of the Orthodox Church (76% of the population), other religions also persisted: Islam (11.9%), Judaism (3.1%), Protestantism (2.0%), Catholicism (1.2%).

Territory

At the beginning of the last century, Russia was geographically at its peak, and naturally it was the largest country in the world. The western borders of the state passed with Norway, Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.

The Russian state included: modern Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Finland, partly Poland.

I want to note that the current capital of Poland, Warsaw, at the beginning of the 20th century was part of Russia.

We considered the territory of Russia in Europe, since it was the theater where the main actions of that era took place.

If we talk about Asia, there, as part of Russia, all the states that later joined the USSR were also included.

Governance and laws

Russia at the beginning of the 20th century continued to be a monarchy, when in the 1st article of the code of laws of the country it was written that "the emperor is an autocrat with unlimited power."

Power in the country was inherited, the eldest in the family. In this case, preference was given to males.

Control system

The main figure in the country was the Emperor. He owned the main functions in the government of the country. The Romanov dynasty itself and all the persons who belonged to it had influence on the emperor and influenced the policy of Russia.

According to the laws of that time, only Orthodox could be a member of the ruling dynasty, so when representatives of other countries joined the dynasty, they were immediately baptized into the Orthodox faith.

Since 1810, the State Council functioned in Russia - an advisory body that provided legislative ideas to the Emperor, but the adoption of a law was a function exclusively of the Emperor.

Executive power was concentrated in the hands of the Ministries. Above the ministries there was no government and prime ministers.

Each minister reported directly to the ruler (this is a feature of the imperial regime). The most important ministries of the Russian Empire in the late 19th - early 20th centuries: internal affairs, military, foreign affairs, finance and public education.

Ministries created a huge number of officials. According to official statistics in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, there was 1 official for every 3 thousand people. It was the largest bureaucracy in the world. A typical problem of tsarist officials was corruption and bribery. This was largely due to low salaries. The obvious problem of the large apparatus of officials was the inability to make important decisions quickly.

Judicial functions

The highest judicial power in the country, since the time of Peter the Great, belonged to the Senate. He performed the functions of the judiciary, supervisory authorities and the interpretation of laws. The judiciary itself was based on the judicial reform of the 60s of the 19th century. Equality, jury trials and glasnost were practiced in Russia.

In practice, inequality still persisted, since the numerous laws of the Russian Empire left many loopholes for lawyers. Who could hire them - he won in the courts.

Regarding the judicial system of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, it is important to note that a special method of litigation was applied to political criminals (any one could be classified as such if desired).

After the assassination of Alexander 2, the law "On the Preservation of Order and Public Peace" was adopted. According to him - in relation to political prisoners, the verdict was passed not by the court, but by officials.

Local government

the system of local self-government functioned on the basis of the laws of the 60s of the 19th century.

On the ground, zemstvos were created, which resolved exclusively local issues (building roads, schools, and so on. By the beginning of the 20th century, the functions of the zemstvos had changed somewhat. Now a bureaucratic apparatus was built over them, fully controlling all the functions of local authorities.

Self-government bodies were divided into:

Urban. City Dumas were formed, in which only owners of houses in the city could be elected.
Rural. Rural gatherings or "worlds" were formed.

Every year the role of local bodies became lower and lower, and more and more control organizations appeared over them.

Army and security

Internal security issues were dealt with by the Police Department (an analogue of the current Ministry of Internal Affairs).

The police network was ramified and, on the whole, did not cope well enough with its functions. It is enough to recall only the numerous assassination attempts on members of the imperial house to be convinced of this.

The number of the army at the beginning of the 20th century exceeded 900 thousand people.

The army continued to be regular, formed on the basis of conscription. Duty was universal, but benefits were granted.

The only sons in the family, breadwinners, teachers and doctors were exempted from military service. Today they say a lot that the army of the Russian Empire was the best in the world. This is definitely debatable. It is enough to recall the Russo-Japanese War to understand that the problems in the army and in its management were significant. The limited command is also emphasized by the First World War, which Russia entered practically without artillery (the command was convinced that this was a hopeless type of weapon).

In reality, 75% of all losses of that war were from artillery.

Economy

The problems that were characteristic of Russia at the end of the 19th century were reflected in the economic development of the country at the beginning of the 20th century. After all, it is no coincidence that at this stage there are 2 revolutions and significant discontent of the population.

Partly it was.

Western. In Western literature, the economy of the end of the existence of the Russian Empire is characterized as a stage of late industrialization with the absence of a middle stratum of the population and a skilled workforce.

If we single out the main features of the Russian economy of that period, we can distinguish: the formation of monopolies, the preservation of a largely serf economic system, the complete dependence of the economy on the state, and the uneven economic development of the regions.

The state made attempts to solve the problem that had accumulated in the economy.

For this, Witte's reforms and Stolypin's agrarian reform were undertaken. These reforms did not radically change the situation, and at the beginning of the 20th century in Russia there was a drop in production and the standard of living of the majority of the population. It is here that lies the social dynamite that exploded in 1917.

The situation in the village

The events of 1893 are very important for understanding the situation in the Russian village in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

In this year, a law was passed restricting the right of the community to redistribute land. Now the land was divided once every 12 years. What does it mean? Every 12 years the land was divided anew. That is, the community took land plot from one peasant and gave it to another. Some historians speak of the small significance of these events, but this is not so. The land issue has always been very acute in Russia, and most of the riots, uprisings and revolutions happened precisely because of the land issue.

The significance of the law of 1893 is best represented by subsequent events. It is enough to add 12 years to convince of this. The following dates are obtained:

1905 (1893 + 12) - the first revolution
1917 (1905 + 12) - February and October revolution
1929 (1917 + 12) - the beginning of collectivization

Due to the peculiarities of the redistribution, agriculture suffered greatly.

There was no point in investing in land. Anyway, in 12 years this site will be given to another. Therefore, it was necessary to squeeze out the maximum in 12 years, and then let the other owner think about restoring the productivity of the land.

And such a point of view was massive!

Once again, I want to emphasize the years of land redistribution: 1905, 1917, 1929. These are the most important years of Russian history, and if they are considered without taking into account the specifics of land redistribution, it is impossible to understand the real events in the Russian village in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. After all, the vast majority of the population were peasants, and the land feeds them. Therefore, in the literal sense of the word, the peasants were ready to kill for the land.

International relationships

After the reign of Alexander 3, Russia was very often characterized by a powerful country, but too distant from European political processes.

This fully corresponded to the interests of the Empire, and Nicholas 2 promised to continue this policy. This was not possible.

as a result, Russia was drawn into the world war.

The beginning of the 20th century saw the rise of the German Empire, which grew stronger every year and showed signs of subjugating Europe.

If we consider this process objectively, Germany did not threaten Russia in any way, but Nicholas 2, who verbally guaranteed the Empire's path to isolation from European intrigues, was actually afraid of Germany and began to look for allies.

Thus began a rapprochement with France, and after the signing of the Franco-English treaty, the Entente was formed. I will not now describe in detail the idiocy of the behavior of Nicholas 2 (this topic is well analyzed in the material about the First World War), but it was his fear of Germany that allowed Russia to be drawn into the war, where its allies in the Entente (France and England) did not help at all and more interfered.

The traditional rival of Russia, the Ottoman Empire, was in a clear decline, and more and more often questions were raised in Russian society that Constantinople should be taken away from Turkey.

It is noteworthy that this should have happened (all documents were signed) after the First World War. It is here that lies one of the reasons why Western countries were so quick to recognize the Russian revolution as legitimate.

August 10, 2013
The peoples of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century. Author: Grade 11
Visual Arts / Cartography / School Maps / Album Domestic History of the 20th Century. Atlas of Russian history of the twentieth century for grade 11
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The peoples of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century

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History of the economy: tutorial Shevchuk Denis Alexandrovich

7.4. Features of the economic development of Russia in the late XIX - early XX centuries

By the middle of the XIX century. in Russia, a general structural crisis of the feudal-serf system was objectively ripe. Serfdom hindered the development of commodity-money relations, especially commercial agriculture. In addition, the society was characterized by an extremely low educational level (22% over the age of 9-22, while in developed European countries this figure was more than 85%). This affected the slow formation of the domestic layer of entrepreneurs, necessary for the industrialization that had begun. The main indicator of the failure of the existing economic system became the Crimean War of 1853–1856. As a result of hostilities, the export of bread was reduced by thirteen times, and flax by eight times. Imports of cars decreased tenfold, cotton imports decreased by two and a half. At the end of the 50s. Russia found itself in a state of virtually insolvent debtor. State debt reached 1 billion rubles. The budget deficit increased six times - from 52 to 307 million rubles. Inflation was growing, the consequence of which was the disappearance of specie from circulation. Despite government prohibitions, she was not kept inside the country and went abroad. Particularly worrying was the credit system. Its bankruptcy forced the government in 1859 to stop issuing loans to landowners secured by estates.

In general, the increase in the production of large-scale industry in 1860-1900. was about 5% annually. At the same time, the textile, food, mining and metallurgical industries were the leaders. At the same time, the complexity of the sectoral structure of the economy was also observed due to the emergence of new industries, for example, a complex that provides the construction and maintenance of railways.

The construction of railways, which made it possible to establish a strong connection between the individual territories of the country, led to the improvement of the regional structure of the economy (Table 15).

Table 15

Regional structure of the economy Russia XIX in.

The remote territories of the Far North and the Far East began to fall into the zone of industrial development.

The formation of a market economy in Russia had its own specific features. Russia, like Germany, embarked on this path later than other European countries, that is, it was in the role of a catching up country, included in the "second echelon" of the development of capitalism. However, this made it possible to largely use foreign experience in science, technology and organization of production. Yes, back in the 80s. the first Russian monopolies in industry and the first cartel association of two St. Petersburg joint-stock banks appeared - the International and Russian Bank for Foreign Trade. The corporatization and syndication of the industry is actively developing. By the beginning of the XX century. Russia ranks first in the concentration of capital and production, but from 1/3 to 1/2 of the accumulation in industry was carried out at the expense of foreign capital. At the same time, two major reforms contribute to the development of the national business sector during this period of time: the monetary reform of 1895-97. and tariff in 1891. The first of them, which went down in history with the name of the Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte (1849-1915), marked the country's entry into the Gold Standard system and was characterized by the transition to a hard convertible currency - the golden ruble. The second - put high economic barriers on the way of importing goods, thereby forcing the import of not finished products from abroad, but capital for their production.

The rapid growth of industry stalled in 1900. The crisis of overproduction in Europe affected. Then followed: the lost Russo-Japanese War, the first revolutionary explosion of 1905-1906, the disorder public finance. Of particular importance for the continuation of industrialization was the solution of the land issue. The inspirer and conductor of the new agrarian policy was the Chairman of the Council of Ministers P.A. Stolypin (1862–1911). According to the new peasant reform, all communal land was divided into two parts:

1) land where redistribution has not been made for 24 years. It passed into the ownership of the peasants;

2) the land where the redistributions were. In this case, the peasant could demand that the land he used after the redistribution be assigned to him.

In addition, everyone who separated from the community could, in the event of a striped land, demand a plot in one place.

Farm- a peasant economy resulting from the relocation of a householder to a new allocated plot.

Cut- allocated land with the preservation of peasant buildings in the village.

An important role in the implementation of the reform was played by the Peasant Land Bank, established in the 1980s. for resale to peasants of landowners' lands. This bank also financed Stolypin's resettlement policy aimed at reducing the agrarian overpopulation of the center of the country by resettling more than three million people to the "free lands" of Siberia, the Far East, Altai, Central Asia. Of course, the settlers faced enormous difficulties: insufficient financial support from the state, lack of roads, remoteness of territories, poor adaptability of the body to new climatic conditions, etc. However, there were also significant achievements. If in the country as a whole the sown area increased by about 10.5 hectares, then in those regions where most peasants left the community, the amount of sown land increased by 1.5 times. In 1911–1913 the country received 28% more grain than the United States, Canada and Argentina combined. Agriculture began to move to an intensive type of reproduction associated with the use of machinery and mineral fertilizers. At the same time, there was no appropriate material and financial base for carrying out agrarian reforms in Russia, therefore, the implementation of the reform was generally half-hearted and carried out with the help of coercive administrative measures without taking into account regional development features.

In 1909–1913 a new economic upsurge began, which covered almost the entire national economy of the country.

During this period, the total average annual growth industrial products amounted to 9%. At the same time, income from industrial production in national income almost equaled the receipts from the agricultural sector, and industrial products covered 80% of domestic demand. The process of monopolization intensified. Large associations arose most quickly in heavy industry. Cartels and syndicates also operated in light industry, and the Knopp group, which united cotton factories, had signs of a trust. However, these associations did not occupy a predominant place in the industry as a whole. The methods of domination of Russian monopolies in the market, which provide for the containment of production volumes and an increase in sales prices, were also distinguished by their originality. In the course were not only the regulation of the production and pricing policies of enterprises that were part of the monopoly, but also the payment of bonuses to them in the event of a decrease in the allocated production quotas, as well as the practice of closing existing enterprises and prohibiting the creation of new ones. As before, foreign capital was of great importance for the development of large-scale production. Russian monopoly associations usually emerged as joint-stock companies, which allowed them to circumvent the provisions of the antimonopoly legislation developed in the country according to the best European models.

Domestic and foreign trade achieved notable successes. The volume of domestic trade in 1913 was 18 billion rubles, or one and a half times more than in 1909. Foreign trade turnover also increased during this period by about 1.5 times and amounted to 2.6 billion rubles by 1913 ., and the volume of exports confidently exceeded the volume of imports - 1.5 and 1.1 billion rubles, respectively. Before the First World War, Russia was one of the leading grain exporting countries in the world.

The active foreign trade balance served the cause of strengthening the state budget. In addition to income from foreign trade, among the sources of the state budget were income from the wine monopoly and the farming system, from state-owned railways, as well as indirect taxes. However, budget expenditures grew much faster than revenues. The money was spent on a huge bureaucratic apparatus, on maintaining the landowners' farms, on military needs, and on paying interest on foreign loans. As of January 1, 1914, Russia's state debt for external and domestic debt was about 9 billion rubles. Thus, at the beginning of the XX century. the domestic economy developed faster than the power structures, which were unable to solve the existing problems of the social and industrial situation in a peaceful way. Tsarism, in the hope of reducing the tension in the country, dragged it into the First World War. During these years, the ideology of an organized, planned economy on a national scale began to be tested in practice.

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§ 3. The period of catch-up development of Russia before the beginning of modern economic growth Despite the proximity of Russian traditions and institutions that developed after the liberation from the Mongol yoke to the traditional eastern ones on the socio-economic development of the country

Answer plan:
1. General characteristics of economic processes.
2. The role of the state in the economy.
3. Development of industry and finance.
4. Development of agriculture.

Answer:

1. By the end of the XIX century. the system of Russian capitalism took shape. The period from the mid 80's to the mid 90's. entered the history of the country as a "golden decade" in the development of the economy. The state actively patronized the development of domestic industry, banking, transport, and communications. Significant foreign investment began to flow into the country. But the following factors negatively affected the development of the Russian economy:

the multistructural nature of the economy - along with the private capitalist, monopolistic and state-monopoly, small-scale (handicraft industry), semi-serfdom and natural-patriarchal (community) structures were preserved;
uneven and profound disproportions in the development of individual sectors;
dependence on foreign grain markets and foreign investment, as a result of which Russia had a hard time surviving the crises of 1898-1904 and 1907-1910;
high rates of economic development were combined with low labor productivity (2-3 times lower than in Europe), a lag in production per capita and technical equipment of labor;
the Russian bourgeoisie did not have access to power and was not free to make decisions, it never left the class framework of the guild merchant class.

2. One of the most important features of the economic development of Russia was the intervention of the state in economic life, which was expressed:

in the creation of state-owned factories (military production), which were excluded from the sphere of free competition;
in state control over railway transport and the construction of new roads (2/3 of the railway network belonged to the state);
in the fact that the state owned a significant part of the land;
the existence of a significant public sector in the economy;
in the establishment of protectionist tariffs by the state, the provision of state loans and orders;
in the creation by the state of conditions for attracting foreign investment (in 1897, a monetary reform, which eliminated bimetallism and established the gold backing of the ruble, its convertibility).

3. Shaking at the end of the 19th century. leading countries of the world the economic crisis has led to the creation of powerful monopoly associations. The first of them appeared in Russia in the 1880s. Cartels and syndicates became the predominant form of monopolies in Russia, dividing the markets for their products and setting uniform prices. Large associations were created in various industries. Thus, in 1902, the Prodamet syndicate united 12 metallurgical plants in the south of Russia (60% of metal sales in the country). The Produgol syndicate controlled almost all coal sales.
Features of Russian monopolies:

high concentration of production and labor force;
dependence government orders and government loans;
attraction of foreign investments (these investments accounted for up to 40% of all investments in the economy).

The process of monopolization took over and banking. 5 large banks were formed that controlled more than half of financial transactions:

Petersburg International Bank
Russian-Asian Bank
Azov-Don and others.

Banking features:

high concentration of capital;
close relationship of banks with the Ministry of Finance and the State Bank;
rivalry between domestic and foreign capital in the domestic market of the country.

One of the features industrial development Russia is that entire layers of economic life are outside the zone of modernization. A significant weight in the economy was retained by handicraft and handicraft industry. It was this industry that had the widest market.

4. Russia is a country dominated by agriculture, 82% of its population was employed in this industry. It ranked first in the world in terms of production: it accounted for 50% of the world's rye harvest, 25% of the world's wheat exports. Agriculture features:

grain specialization of agriculture, which led to agrarian overpopulation and land depletion;
dependence on grain prices in the foreign market in the face of increased competition from the United States, Argentina, and Australia;
the low capacity of the bulk of the peasant farms, the increase in production was noted only in the landlord farms and the farms of wealthy peasants (no more than 15-20% of all peasants);
Russia is a “zone of risky agriculture”, which, with low agricultural technology, led to chronic crop failures and famine;
the preservation of semi-serfdom and patriarchal survivals in the countryside (landownership, the communal system of land ownership and land use).
The agricultural sector was included in the modernization process only partially. It was the problems of agriculture that became the main core of the economic, social and political life of the country at the beginning of the century.

Russia has embarked on the path of modernization lagging behind Western Europe. The contradictions in the development of the Russian economy were connected precisely with the insufficiency of drawing its individual sectors into modernization. Autocracy and the political dominance of the nobility were a serious brake on the path of economic development. All this led to instability in the development of other spheres of social activity.

Economic Development of Germany in the Late Middle Ages

The development of a market economy took place much later than a similar process in France or England, where in the 15-16 centuries the decomposition of the guild system in the handicraft sector and feudalism in the agricultural sector began. In Germany, until the beginning of the 19th century, there were strict guild orders and serfdom.

In the 15-18 centuries, Germany was not one whole state, since feudal fragmentation interfered with its unity. Numerous kingdoms, duchies, principalities, etc. were located on its territories.

This period is characterized by the weak economic development of the German states. This is due to several reasons:

decline economic regions Northern Italy, due to the movement of trade routes to the Atlantic Ocean, the economy of the southern German cities was closely connected with them;
The loss of the Hanseatic League of its numerous branches in England, Scandinavia, Russia, in connection with which the volume of foreign trade in Northern Europe decreased, which negatively affected the cities: Bremen, Hamburg, Lübeck;
The fragmentation of Germany did not allow her to conquer overseas territories, such as England and Holland, for which the plunder of colonies became an important source of the initial accumulation of capital.

The internal and external economic situation worsened, social tension among the peasants grew, this served as a pretext for the peasant war, which engulfed most of Germany.

However, the rebels in the peasant war were defeated, and in the future the dependence of the peasants intensified.

The Thirty Years' War negatively affected the economic development of Germany, during which the German territories suffered the most: there was a reduction in the population by 60-70%, many livestock died, and wastelands remained in place of arable land. Industrial production has declined, large cities have lost their former status. In general, the German economy was completely destroyed.

The political fragmentation of Germany did not contribute to the formation of a policy of mercantilism, which was characteristic of centralized states. This led to the fact that the pace of development of the national bourgeoisie and the formation of a market economy lagged noticeably behind the processes taking place at that time in other European countries.

Meanwhile, the German estates began to forge links with foreign markets. Small-scale handicraft production was increasingly oriented towards market conditions, merchant capital began to penetrate into various areas of industry, where by the end of the 17th century centralized manufactories were formed. Large manufactories in the production of woolen and silk fabrics were especially widespread.

Remark 1

In 1701, the Kingdom of Prussia was formed with its capital in Berlin. Since then, the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty ruled all of Germany until 1918. During the 18th century, the main goal of Prussia's foreign policy was the forcible annexation to it of many territories not only of the German principalities, but also of Sweden and Austria.

Economy of Germany in the early 19th century

During the Napoleonic Wars, in 1815, the German Confederation was created, which included 34 monarchies, as well as 4 free cities. However, it did not help solve the problem of fragmentation. german market economy It was formed not as a result of revolutionary actions, as happened in France, England, Holland, but gradually, with the help of long-term reforms.

The main factor that held back industrial development in Germany was the relative isolation of the state from international trade routes. In the presence of navigable rivers in Germany, they were poorly used, since the country had almost no own river vessels. To transport goods, foreign ships were involved.

Industrial development was also slowed down by the lack of a single railway line, since in the 1830-1840s the laying of railway lines took place within the German states, which were not connected with each other.

The development of the German market was also held back by the fact that craft workshops remained the predominant form of production in the 19th century. Manufactories that produced consumer goods developed mainly in the villages, since the guild system prevailed in the cities, which did not allow the development of manufactories.

The guild system also affected the foreign trade turnover: more expensive handicraft goods could not compete with cheap goods from England, which dominated the structure of German imports. Mostly food and raw materials were exported.

German industry was also lagging behind due to the fact that only in the 1830s did steam engines begin to take root.

Meanwhile, the main problem of the country was political and economic fragmentation. Economic development was hampered by internal customs barriers that had to be eliminated.

Remark 2

Prussia, being the most developed German state, initiated the abolition of customs barriers. in 1818 customs gates were liquidated in Prussia, internal duties and excises were abolished. This was the first step towards the unification of the country.

In 1833, the Customs Union was created, the participants of which were 18 major countries Northern Germany. The union was concluded at the beginning for 8 years, and then in 1842 it was extended for another ten years. Within the framework of the union, customs duties between participants were abolished, while high tariffs were maintained on the import of foreign goods (especially English) to protect German manufacturers. The global positions of the Customs Union soon strengthened, as evidenced by the conclusion of trade agreements with Holland, England, Turkey, Belgium and Greece. Despite the beginning of economic development, Germany still remained an agrarian country until the middle of the 19th century, since agriculture was the main economic sector.

Introduction

Accelerated socio-economic and technical development at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. triggered a second technological revolution. There have been changes in industry, science and technology.

The "age of electricity" began: new methods of generating electricity appeared, the electrification of many industries began, and electric motors were invented. In this regard, new industries emerged - energy, electrometallurgical.

Mechanical engineering began to develop rapidly, new types of machines were invented (tram, car). The transport system has been improved. The emergence of new means of communication (radio, telephone, telegraph) had a great impact on the establishment of competition between various economic entities.

The education system has improved. Primary education became compulsory and free. New universities appeared, the number of faculties increased. Scientists - engineers have made a great contribution to the development of science, and their inventions had a great influence on the improvement of industries, agriculture, and transport.

These changes were of a global nature; affected all countries of the world. The industrial revolution had an impact on social socio-economic relations, industries and agriculture, and it was also important for all countries.

1. Common features of developed countries

economic development country

Let us consider the second technological revolution in the most developed countries, which predetermined the development of the world economy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These countries were England, Germany and France, the USA and Japan. There are many common features in the development of these countries. The prerequisite for this was the second technological revolution, which manifested itself in the following:

In an increase in the total world output and an increase in productivity in connection with the introduction of technical innovations in industry;

In the emergence of large-scale industrial production due to the impossibility of introducing new technology at smaller enterprises;

In the emergence of new industries and changes in its sectoral structure, the branches of heavy industry came to the fore in importance;

In the creation of monopolies and industrial monopoly unions, as well as in the accelerated development of joint-stock ownership;

In the centralization of banking capital and the increase in investment in industry;

In the formation of the world economy and the increase in international economic relations.

But, despite the large number of common features, each country had its own characteristics of economic development.

2. Features of the economic development of Great Britain

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, industrial growth in Great Britain slowed down significantly. The manufacturing sector needed large investments, which were needed to update the technical base of enterprises and develop new industries. But entrepreneurs preferred to take capital out of the country rather than invest it in domestic industry. Because of this, most factories in the UK continued to operate on obsolete equipment, which negatively affected the development of the industry. While in other countries there was a rapid rise in heavy industry, in England the light industry continued to play the leading role.

Great Britain owned huge colonial possessions. Raw materials in the British colonies were purchased at very low prices, and finished products on high. Colonial trade and the availability of monopoly sources of cheap raw materials and markets did not stimulate English industrialists to improve production. In addition, protectionist policies have intensified in many countries. All this led to the weakening of the British position in world markets.

Monopolies in Great Britain arose much later than in other countries. Banking capital was ahead of industrial capital, and one of the main points in the national income of Great Britain was the percentage of the export of capital.

Agriculture practically did not develop. Farming will not be able to compete with other countries that supplied the UK with cheaper agricultural products. In this regard, the amount of cultivated land was significantly reduced, and the economy of England began to depend on the world agricultural market.

A weak level of education also negatively affected the economic development of the UK. For a long time, universal primary and higher vocational education remained inaccessible to many people. In this regard, English engineering developed much worse than in other countries, which led to a decrease in the competitiveness of British goods.

Thus, by the beginning of the 20th century, Great Britain had lost its leadership in many industries and ceased to be the "factory of the world."

3. Features of the economic development of France

Just like in Great Britain, the level of economic development of France in the late XIX - early XX century. lagged behind other leading countries of the world.

The low rate of development of heavy industry is associated with a lack of resources. France had a small raw material base, so it had to import in large quantities the resources necessary for production. This led to higher prices for manufactured products and reduced the competitiveness of French goods in world markets. Therefore, light industry prevailed in France, as well as the traditional production of luxury goods. However, in connection with the militarization in the country, mechanical engineering and the military industry began to actively develop.

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries, France continued to be an agrarian country. Farms were actively formed, territorial specialization of agriculture arose. In agricultural production, winemaking and animal husbandry predominated. To protect domestic goods, the French government pursued a tough protectionist policy. All this led to the strengthening of agriculture and increased its share in the country's economy.

An important role in the economic development of France was played by the concentration of production, which subsequently led to the formation of industrial monopolies. The centralization and concentration of banking capital was due to the predominance of small business. But just as in Great Britain, capital was not invested in the development of industry, but was exported abroad in the form of loans to foreign countries. Thus, France became a rentier state, and profits from usury became the main source of state revenue.

4. Features of the economic development of Germany

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, Germany became one of the largest industrial powers. This was largely facilitated by the state unification of the country, which resulted in the emergence of a large German Empire and an effective state policy based on increased protectionism.

A perfect education system played a significant role in the economic development of Germany. The high level of higher and professional education had a great influence on the increase in labor, and the achievements of German engineers on the development of industry.

Heavy industries dominated in Germany, and metallurgy and machine building were rapidly developed. This was facilitated by the presence of a rich raw material base and the use of technical innovations in the production. Due to the rapid development of metallurgy in the country, intensive construction of railways began, as well as the production of railway transport and equipment. In terms of the number of cars produced, Germany came out on top in the world. But in addition to mechanical engineering, the electric power industry and the chemical industry were actively developing. All this helped Germany to firmly gain a foothold in the world market for goods.

Favorable impact on the economic development of Germany in the late XIX - early XX century. provided by the monopolization of industrial production, based on syndication, which was actively encouraged by the state. A feature of the German banking system was that the capital was not exported abroad, but was used within the country. This greatly improved the level of industrial development of the country. But German banks were universal. They could engage in usury, provide loans to other countries. But a feature of the export of capital in Germany was the import into the country - the importer of branches of German enterprises.

The development of Germany followed the "universal path", which helped turn this country into an industrial power. It consisted in the special development of heavy industries, the strengthening of protectionist policies, the creation of monopolies and the improvement of the educational system. Thanks to this, Germany was able to strengthen its position in the world economy and become the world's largest exporter of engineering and chemical products.

5. Features of US economic development

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. The United States has been one of the most dynamic developing countries. The rapid economic development of the United States was influenced by several factors:

Rich raw material base and a large amount of natural resources;

Rapid population growth due to massive immigration from Europe, which brought the latest technological advances to the US;

The use of the scientific and technical experience of European countries and the development of American engineering, which contributed to the acceleration of the industrial revolution;

Introduction of mass and mass production of goods;

The influx of capital from Europe, which certainly helped the development of American industry;

Rigid policy of protectionism.

The most rapidly developing sectors of heavy industry in the United States were metallurgy, machine building, the oil and aluminum industries. Appeared at the beginning of the 20th century. a new industry - the automotive industry in general, became a priority and was able to change the economic structure of the country. Light industry was dominated by the mass production of clothing, footwear, and foodstuffs.

Railway construction and the improvement of the transport system led to the development of inter-regional specialization of industry, an increase in labor productivity, a decrease production costs as well as increased mobility of capital and labor.

A feature of the monopolization of production in the United States was the presence of trusts, as well as ruthless methods of competition. This subsequently led to the emergence large companies and crowding out small businesses. Centralized banking capital merged with industrial capital, forming banking groups, led by Morgan and Rockefeller.

Along with industry, agriculture in the United States also developed rapidly. A huge number of farms, large areas of agricultural land, the use of the latest advances in technology and government support for farming have helped improve the level of agricultural development in the United States and make the country a major world exporter of agricultural products.

The US economic growth rate was very high. Thanks to this, the country in a short period turned into a powerful industrial power, which played a large role in world markets and became the most developed country in the world.

6. Features of the economic development of Japan

At the end of the XIX century. in Japan there have been major shifts in the economy and industry. Heavy and military industry developed rapidly, railways, telegraph and telephone lines were built. machine production replaced the manufactory. All this was due to the large investment in the development of the Japanese economy.

Despite support for the development of metallurgy and the mining industry, the textile industry remained the leading industry in Japan. This was due to the lack of a raw material base in the country and the high cost of imported resources.

Nevertheless, Japan continued to be an agrarian country, because. most of the population was employed in agriculture. Although agriculture developed poorly: corvee was preserved, there were no farms.

Unlike other countries, monopolies in Japan extended their power to various areas of production and activities. In addition, monopolistic organizations based on affiliation to a particular region or clan predominated. The banking system in Japan was centralized and invested in many industries, especially strategic ones.

Thus, at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Japan has undergone significant changes in industry and economy. But despite the main export items in the country remained agricultural products: rice and tea. But still, in a short period of time, Japan was able to turn from a backward state into one of the leading industrial powers and one of the countries with the most developed economy.

Conclusion

Summing up the results of the industrial revolution that took place in the late XIX - early XX century. It can be seen that the first place in terms of economic development is taken by young rapidly developing countries: the USA and Germany. In these countries, there is a rise in almost all areas of the economy, while the old industrial countries of Great Britain and France are losing world leadership in industry and agriculture. The active development of the economy and economy also took place in Japan, even though feudal remnants remained there.

In this regard, in the XX century. the role of individual countries in the world economy and the system of the world economy has changed. Once backward countries came to the fore, and those who initially developed successfully could not maintain their leadership in many industries and agriculture.

Bibliographic list

1. History of the world economy. Ed. Polyaka G.B., Markova A.N. (2002, 727 pp.)

2. recent history foreign countries: Europe and America. 1917-1945. - M., 1989.

3. Economic history of foreign countries. / Under the general editorship. IN AND. Golubovich. - Minsk, 1997.