The enterprise is the main economic unit in a market economy. The enterprise is characterized by a certain industry affiliation and occupies a special place in the system of the national economy.
The economy of any country is a single complex of interrelated industries that distinguish social reproduction within national boundaries.
The national economy is the result of the economic and social development of society, the development of labor specialization and cooperation, and international cooperation with other countries. The national economic complex has specific sectoral, reproductive, regional and other structural characteristics.
Spheres and divisions of the economy
When analyzing the national economy in economic research, such concepts as sphere, industry, sector of the economy are usually used.
Spheres of the economy
From the point of view of participation in the creation of the total social product and national income social production is divided into two large areas: material production and the non-productive sphere.
Material production includes industry, agriculture and forestry, freight transport, communications (serving material production), construction, trade, public catering, information and computing services, and other activities in the sphere of material production.
The non-productive sphere includes housing and communal services, passenger transport, communications (serving organizations of the non-productive sector and the population), health care, physical culture and social security, public education, culture and art, science and scientific services, lending and insurance, and the activities of the administrative apparatus. .
Branches of the economy
Spheres of economy are subdivided into specialized branches. Industry - a group of qualitatively homogeneous economic units (enterprises, organizations, institutions), which are characterized by special conditions of production in the system of social division of labor, homogeneous products and performing general function in national economy.
For example, the sphere of material production includes industries; secondly, the means of production and consumer goods necessary for the life and development of society are created. Each of. lei, in turn, are divided into types of production. The industry, for example, includes more than 15 major industries such as electric power, fuel industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, machine building and metalworking, timber industry, light and food industries, and other industries.
Sectors of the economy
A sector is a set of units that have similar economic goals, functions and behavior. These usually include the business sector, the household sector, the public institutions and the outer sector
The household sector includes households and the enterprises formed by them.
The external sector, or the “rest of the world” sector, is embassies, consulates, military bases, international organizations located in this country.
Structural adjustment of the economy
Usually allocate branch, reproduction, regional and other types of market structures. The structure of the national economy is not constant: some sectors and types of production are characterized by rapid development, while others, on the contrary, slow down their growth rate, i.e. stagnate1.
Structural changes in the economy can be spontaneous, or they can be regulated by the state in the course of implementing structural policy. The main methods of state structural policy are state target programs, state investments, purchases and subsidies, various tax incentives for individual enterprises, regions or groups of industries.
The implementation of structural restructuring of the economy ensures the balance of the national economy, is the basis for sustainable and efficient economic growth and development.
1. Introduction
2. Spheres and divisions of the economy
3. Structural adjustment of the economy
4. Conclusion.
5. Literature
Introduction
The economy of any country is a single complex of interrelated industries. Each state, depending on its national and historical traditions, geographical and geopolitical conditions and labor skills of the population, creates its own unique complex of sectors of the national economy, the formation of which is increasingly influenced by international cooperation with other countries.
When analyzing the national economy, such concepts as spheres, industries, complexes, sectors of the economy are singled out.
The national economy is the result of the economic and social development of society, the development of labor specialization and cooperation, and international cooperation with other countries.
The national economic complex has specific sectoral, reproductive, regional and other structural characteristics.
1. Spheres and divisions of the economy
When analyzing the national economy in economic research commonly used concepts such as sphere, industry, sector of the economy.
Spheres of the economy
From the point of view of participation in the creation of the total social product and national income, social production is divided into two large areas: material production and the non-productive sphere.
Material production includes industry, agriculture and forestry, freight transport, communications (serving material production), construction, trade, public catering, information and computing services, and other activities in the sphere of material production. The non-productive sphere includes housing and communal services, passenger transport, communications (serving organizations of the non-productive sector and the population), health care, physical culture and social security, public education, culture and art, science and scientific services, lending and insurance, and the activities of the administrative apparatus. .
Branches of the economy
Spheres of economy are subdivided into specialized branches. Industry - a group of qualitatively homogeneous economic units (enterprises, organizations, institutions) characterized by special conditions of production in the system of social division of labor, homogeneous products and performing a common (specific) function in the national economy.
For example, the sphere of material production includes branches in which the means of production and consumer goods necessary for the life and development of society are created.
The sectoral division of the economy is the result of a historical process, the development of the social division of labor.
Each of the specialized industries, in turn, is subdivided into complex industries and types of industries. In the industry, for example, there are more than 15 such large industries as electric power, fuel industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industry, mechanical engineering and metalworking, forestry, pulp and paper industry, industry building materials, light and food industry and other industries.
Specialized industries are characterized by varying degrees of differentiation of production. The development of society and the economy, the further deepening of the specialization of production leads to the formation of new industries and types of production. Simultaneously with specialization and differentiation, there are processes of cooperation, integration of production, leading to the development of stable production relations between industries, to the creation of mixed industries and intersectoral complexes.
Intersectoral complexes
Intersectoral complex - an integration structure that characterizes the interaction of various industries and their elements, different stages of production and distribution of the product.
Intersectoral complexes arise and develop both within a separate sector of the economy and between different sectors. In the composition of industry, for example, there are fuel and energy, metallurgical, machine-building and other complexes. The agro-industrial and building complexes uniting different branches of the national economy.
Intersectoral national economic complexes can be conditionally divided into target and functional ones. The selection of target complexes is based on the reproductive principle and the criterion of participation in the creation of the final product. For example, one can single out the machine-building complex, the fuel and energy and agro-industrial complex, the forestry and mineral resource complex, the transport complex, etc.
The allocation of functional complexes is based on the principle and criterion of specialization of the complex for a certain function. Here we can single out investment and infrastructure complexes, scientific and technical complex, and to a certain extent, the ecological complex.
On the basis of the division of labor, one can distinguish diversified and single-industry complexes, territorial production complexes, intersectoral scientific and technical complexes.
Sectors of the economy
The constituent elements of the national economic complex can be grouped according to various economic characteristics. In foreign studies, on the basis of the system of national accounts, large sectors of the economy are singled out for a generalizing characteristic of economic processes.
A sector is understood as a set of institutional units that have similar economic goals, functions and behavior. These typically include: the enterprise sector, the household sector, the government sector and the external sector. The enterprise sector is usually subdivided into the financial enterprise sector and the non-financial enterprise sector.
The sector of non-financial enterprises includes enterprises engaged in the production of goods and services for the purpose of making a profit, and non-profit organizations that do not pursue the goal of making a profit. Depending on who controls their activities, they, in turn, are divided into state, national, private and foreign non-financial enterprises.
The financial enterprise sector covers institutional units engaged in financial intermediation.
The public sector sector is the totality of legislative, judicial and executive authorities, social security funds and controlled by them non-profit organizations.
The household sector includes mainly consuming units, i.e. households and the enterprises formed by them.
The external sector, or the "rest of the world" sector, is a set of institutional units - non-residents of a given country (i.e. located outside the country) with economic ties, as well as embassies, consulates, military bases, international organizations located on the territory of this country. countries.
According to the degree of connection with the market in the national economy, the market and non-market sectors are often distinguished.
The market sector covers the production of goods and services intended for sale on the market at prices that have a significant impact on the demand for these goods or services, as well as the exchange of goods and services through barter, wages in kind and stocks. finished products.
Non-market sector - the production of products and services intended for use directly by producers or owners of the enterprise, as well as provided to other consumers free of charge or at prices that do not affect demand.
Sometimes mixed industries are additionally identified that provide market and non-market services.
By international statistics The economy is usually divided into industries that produce goods and industries that provide services. The first group includes industry, Agriculture, construction and other branches of material production (publishing, recycling of secondary raw materials, collection of wild mushrooms and berries, etc.). Service industries include education, transport, commerce, healthcare, general public administration, defense, etc.
2. Structural restructuring of the economy
The national economic complex is a complex system of interacting macroeconomic elements. The existing relationships (proportions) between these elements are called economic structure. Usually, sectoral, reproductive, regional and other types of economic structures are distinguished.
The structure of the national economy is not constant: some sectors and types of production are characterized by rapid development, while others, on the contrary, slow down their growth rates and stagnate.
Structural changes in the economy may be of a spontaneous nature, or they may be regulated by the state in the course of the implementation of the structural policy, which is an integral part of macroeconomic policy. The main methods of state structural policy are state target programs, state investments, purchases and subsidies, various tax incentives for individual enterprises, regions or groups of industries.
The implementation of structural restructuring of the economy ensures the balance of the national economy, is the basis for sustainable and effective economic growth and development.
Features and directions of structural adjustment in Russia
In Russia, the restructuring of the economy is carried out in the context of the transition from an administrative-command economic system to a market economy. The transition itself means a radical transformation of the economic system, which is characterized by profound transformations in the system of socio-economic relations, a change in the forms and methods of management, property relations, including the formation of a private sector and the privatization of a predominant or significant part public sector economy. The need for structural adjustment is explained by the change of priorities in the formation of the national economic structure. The former structure of the national economic complex turned out to be unviable and economically inefficient in the conditions of economic liberalization, development market methods management. The existing structure was characterized by an extremely high degree of nationalization of all economic processes, super-monopolization of production, a distorted structure of the national economic complex with a significant development of extractive industries, a hypertrophied military-industrial complex with a significant lag in industries working for the consumer market.
The specifics of structural adjustment in Russia lies in the fact that it is carried out in the conditions of a transformational recession that accompanies any transition from one economic system to another, which, in the conditions of our country, was superimposed on structural crisis that started back in the 80s. Structural adjustment is carried out in the context of changing forms and methods of state influence on the economy, a significant reduction public spending and centralized lending.
The main directions of structural adjustment are the curtailment and re-profiling of objectively unnecessary and incapacitated enterprises, slowing down the fall and stabilizing the output of products that are in demand in the domestic and foreign markets; creation of conditions for the revival and development of promising activities that form the real economic potential of the country.
Industry Development Trends
Russia is a country with a developed industry. It accounts for 3/5 of the total gross social product, more than 2/5 of the national income, about 1/2 of the production fixed assets and, together with construction, about 2/5 of the employed in social production population. Industry primarily determines the production and scientific and technical potential, the degree and efficiency of the use of natural, material and labor resources. It serves as the basis for the formation of territorial production complexes.
In the composition of industry, the intensity of development of individual sectors is different, which is explained by the peculiarities of their formation in the past, the need to comply with certain intersectoral proportions, the requirements of scientific and technological progress, and other reasons. At the same time, the stability of the following trends attracts attention: the priority growth of industries that ensure scientific and technological progress; significant expansion of the production of consumer goods in all branches of industry.
Transformations carried out during economic reform, have already led to the fact that structural shifts in the economy are increasingly influenced by market mechanisms. They will mainly determine the prospects for the development of individual industries.
The necessary changes in the directions and proportions of the development of industrial production are also quite obvious: strengthening its intensification, raising the technical level and competitiveness, rationalizing the structure of production, and paying closer attention to the problems of resource conservation and environmental protection.
During the period of market reforms in Russia, there were significant changes in the sectoral structure of industry (%):
The share of extractive industries in the total volume of industrial output tends to increase, which contradicts the global trend of recent years, which consists in the outpacing growth of the manufacturing industry. Moreover, the development of extractive industries is largely guided by the demand that is formed in the external market, outside the national economy. Russia is increasingly drawn into the international division of labor as a supplier of fuel and raw materials and a consumer of finished industrial products. The change in the structure of exports and imports of industrial products is characterized by the following data (%):
Structural changes have taken place in the manufacturing industry itself. For example, the share of materials, semi-finished products and components in the total volume of manufacturing products has increased. In 1991 it was 40%, and in 1995 it was 43.4%. Some increase was observed in the production of consumer goods and foodstuffs: in 1991 they amounted to 6.6 and 12.2%, and in 1995 - 8.4 and 14.6%, respectively.
A significant reduction occurred in the production of machinery and equipment, their share in the total volume of manufacturing output decreased from 25.6% in 1991 to 17.7% in 1995.
Taking into account the needs of the structural restructuring of the economy, the emerging negative trends in the development of industrial production, the Government of the Russian Federation developed a concept of the state's industrial policy until 2010.
The planned structural shifts in industry do not mean a return to the structure of 1990. They suggest a decrease in the share of extractive industries (from 16% in 1995 to 10% in 2010) and an increase in the share of processing industries (from 84% in 1995 to 90 % in 2010). Over the next 2-3 years, the priority sectors will be: oil, gas, oil refining, woodworking, mining and processing of diamonds, machine-building industries.
The government outlines a whole system of measures to support and stimulate the development of these industries: the formation of institutional and legislative conditions, reform tax system, foreign economic support, stimulation of public, private and foreign investment.
Industrial policy implies different development strategies for different industries and production groups.
So, for industries with great scientific and technical potential, capable of creating competitive products for the world and domestic market(aircraft building, rocket and space production, nuclear industry, armaments and military equipment, electrical engineering, heavy machine tool building, biotechnology, etc.), state investments, purchases and subsidies, export credits are planned.
Exportable sectors of the extractive industry (oil, gas, diamond, timber) have real opportunities development on its own financial base. Therefore, the policy in relation to these industries will be focused on their independent financing. To do this, it is planned to differentiate the payment for the use of subsoil, excises, taking into account the quality and location of deposits, as well as the degree of their development for oil industry, gas prices by the cost of transportation and distribution in the gas industry.
In the oil industry, the main direction of further institutional reforms will be the continuation of the process of formation of vertically integrated companies that carry out a range of works on the extraction and processing of petroleum raw materials.
During oil refining, measures will be taken to improve the economic situation in the areas where oil refineries are located. High domestic and foreign demand for gas industry products will keep them attractive to investors and creditors. The main methods of industrial policy for industries that are not able to quickly reorganize due to the technical backwardness of production (automobile industry, transport, road, agricultural engineering, light and food industries) are to gradually reduce protective import tariffs to levels allowed by international standards, as well as methods non-tariff regulation. These sectors are not expected to receive direct state support.
In certain industries, the following main directions of development will be priority.
In ferrous metallurgy, and in particular in rolling production, the main direction of improving the structure will be to expand the range and improve the quality of metal products.
Profitability in ferrous metallurgy was 8.2% in 1996, i.e. there was a decrease for the year by 3.1 times. The way out of this situation is the technical re-equipment of metallurgical enterprises by increasing the methods of applying efficient technologies and equipment. The technical re-equipment of the labor process is promising. In addition, the predicted growth in world prices for almost all metals in the late 90s. can increase the attractiveness of this industry for investors, contribute to the inflow of financial resources and increase the liquidity of the shares of metallurgical enterprises.
In the cement industry, the improvement of the structure will be carried out mainly by increasing the output of cement obtained by an energy-saving "dry" method, and organizing the production of multicomponent cements, which ensure the production of strong and durable concrete and reinforced concrete products,
In the chemical industry, promising areas arising from the expected structure of demand are the expansion of the range and the increase in the production of progressive types of synthetic fibers and threads; increasing the production of tires for light vehicles that are in steady demand and organizing the production of large and extra large tires. The survival of the pharmaceutical industry is associated with the production of drugs that are not inferior in quality to foreign analogues.
In the pulp and paper industry, the implementation of the planned measures will create conditions for increasing the efficiency of the use of wood raw materials, the quality and competitiveness of timber and paper products and building up the export potential of the timber complex on this basis.
In mechanical engineering and metalworking, it is advisable, in particular, to increase the production of equipment for intensifying oil and gas production, increasing the depth of oil refining, increasing the level of mechanization and the degree of safety of work in coal mines and cuts.
In the light industry, it is possible to expand the range of products and increase the supply of wide-sized cotton fabrics, new types of suit, blanket and furniture fabrics, children's clothing and knitwear, shoes with genuine leather uppers. Improving the infrastructure of the goods market will go through the implementation of measures to accelerate the promotion of goods through the development of interregional and regional wholesale markets, small wholesale bases, exhibition centers, fairs.
Structural changes in the agro-industrial complex
The agro-industrial complex (AIC) has an exceptionally complex structure. It is a combination of many industries and industries interconnected economically, technologically and organizationally. Its most important sectors are agriculture, industries that process agricultural raw materials. It sometimes includes industries that provide the agro-industrial complex with the means of production (agricultural engineering, etc.). Construction, trade and public catering are directly connected with it. The agro-industrial complex also includes production and social infrastructure (elevator- storage facilities, veterinary services, repair facilities, transport facilities, cultural institutions, etc.).
The process of integrating agriculture and enterprises processing its raw materials makes it possible to overcome the spatial gap between the raw material zones and the areas of production of finished products, ensure their economic convergence, and narrow the boundaries of specialized areas for the cultivation of certain crops.
The development of the agro-industrial complex is given special attention in the course of the structural restructuring of the economy. This is explained by the existing backwardness of agriculture, its low profitability, and the unresolved problem of providing the population and industry with high-quality domestic food products and industrial raw materials.
In the agro-industrial complex, government policy will be aimed at the formation of a new institutional, sectoral and regional structure agricultural sector on the basis of updating the production potential of agriculture and processing, their maximum adaptation to work in a market environment with a focus on their own resources.
Based on the current situation, the following major areas of structural policy in the agro-industrial complex can be distinguished:
- intensification of work on the transformation of land relations on the basis of granting land to agricultural enterprises and citizens for ownership, perpetual permanent use, life-long inheritable possession or lease, as well as the development of the land market;
- equal development of all forms of ownership and land tenure;
- support for a variety of agro-industrial formations (agricultural, processing and service enterprises) with a full production cycle;
- attracting private capital to the agricultural sector by creating agricultural and other banks for lending to rural producers;
- the use of centralized lending to agricultural producers secured by the future harvest;
- stimulation of private and foreign investments in the processing industry of the agro-industrial complex;
- budgetary financing of expenses for conducting breeding business, selection and seed production, fundamental scientific research aimed at preventing infectious animal diseases, spreading plant pests and protecting the environment.
Improving the reproductive structure of the economy
The reproductive structure of the economy is determined by the relationship between the divisions of social reproduction, between consumption and accumulation. Russia is currently characterized by an absolute and relative decline in accumulation. Structural adjustment is carried out in conditions of limited investment resources.
In 1992, the decline in investment was 40%, in 1993 - 12%, in 1994 - 26%. capital investments: for non-production purposes, their share increased, while for production purposes it decreased (from 67% in 1992 to 55% in 1994).
An analysis of the dynamics of capital investments by industry shows that the smallest reduction was in the fuel and energy complex and metallurgy. They fell more sharply in the chemical, light and food industries (by 40–50% in 1993 and by 50% in 1994 compared to the previous year).
As a result of reforms and privatization, the structure of capital investments by sources of financing has changed: budget financing has decreased, but capital investments have increased at the expense of own and borrowed funds of enterprises; the volume of capital investments decreased due to concessional state loans and the share of state off-budget investment funds increased.
Structural changes in the economy, the need to adapt production to changing consumer demand, and increasing the competitiveness of domestic products require significant investment in fixed assets. extensions working capital and a better use of the available capacities is in most cases not enough, especially in the manufacturing industries, due to the unsuitability of these capacities to market requirements.
However, the problem of increasing investment in fixed capital cannot be solved by increasing public investment both due to the limited state budget funds, and, mainly, because of their low efficiency. This means that in modern conditions, the task of increasing the efficiency of investments that bring returns in minimum terms capable of reversing the decline in production, ensuring the growth of real incomes of enterprises, the population and the budget, increasing effective demand and not increasing inflation.
The strategic direction of improving public investment is the formation of an effective structure of public spending. According to the government, the cost of investment needs should not exceed a certain percentage of GDP. If now 28-30% of GDP is concentrated in the consolidated budget, then in the near future 32-34% of GDP is planned. The optimal level of public investment, in which 70% falls on social facilities, should reach 3–3.5% of GDP. In the structure of public investment, spending on industrial policy should be at least 30-40%, or 0.9-1.4% of GDP.
In parallel, it is planned to withdraw from the economic turnover inefficient enterprises and industries that do not have prospects, taking into account the preservation or creation of new jobs, maintaining the social sphere and the vital activity of specific cities and regions.
One of the directions for restructuring the reproductive structure of the Russian economy is to change the existing proportion between the sectors of material production and the sectors that ensure the functioning of these industries, or infrastructure.
Infrastructure is usually divided into production and social (non-production).
The production infrastructure basically continues the process of production within the circulation process. It ensures the movement and storage of raw materials, fuel, energy, various materials and finished products, the transfer of information, etc., in agriculture - land reclamation. The production infrastructure includes:
1. transport (including not only communication routes, but also vehicles), communications, warehousing, logistics;
2. engineering structures and devices, including irrigation systems;
3. communications and networks, including power lines (TL) and distribution networks, oil and gas pipelines, telephone networks, etc.
The production infrastructure acts as an intra-production (for individual enterprises, firms or their associations) and ordinary purposes. An international infrastructure is being formed, an example of which is, in particular, fuel and energy infrastructure facilities: gas and oil pipelines, power lines stretching across the territory of the former Soviet Union and going to many European countries.
The social infrastructure is formed, first of all, by passenger transport, especially urban transport, various urban engineering structures and communications, water and power supply networks, sewerage, telephone networks, etc., in a broader aspect, municipal utilities of cities and settlements generally.
Infrastructure, both industrial and social, ensures the integrity and complexity of the national economy at its various levels. The role of infrastructure in the process of developing new territories, raw materials and fuel and energy resources in the eastern and northern regions of the country is great.
Transport is of particular importance among Russian infrastructure sectors.
Transport does a great job of moving goods and people. The total costs for the transportation of goods and passengers and for loading and unloading work amount to tens of billions of rubles. Accordingly, the share of these costs (transport component) in the cost of industrial products is also large, reaching an average of 13%, and in some industries - in ferrous metallurgy, the coal industry, etc. - much more.
In order to reduce transport costs in the national economy, it is necessary to reduce the material intensity of production based on advanced technologies, rationalize the transport and economic ties between enterprises and regions, rationally locate and specialize production, and increase the complexity in the development of the economy of regions and regions.
However, the role of the transport factor cannot be reduced only to the share of transport costs. Carrying out production links between industries and regions, transport is an indispensable condition and an active lever of specialization and integrated development of economic regions and entire countries, i.e. processes that have a direct impact on the efficiency of social production and the market. The very development of the territorial division of labor, the specialization of regions, is inconceivable without the presence of inter-district transport routes, and the integrated development of the economy of a republic or region without internal communications and the corresponding transport system.
Therefore, along with the need to reduce transport costs as one of the factors for increasing the efficiency of production development, there is also a more global task - to reduce the costs for the functioning of the entire territorial organization of production. The optimality criterion in this problem is the minimization of certain types production costs, but the total costs of production and transportation of products to the consumer.
Infrastructure sectors, which largely determine the overall efficiency of production, are, as the experience of countries with developed market economies, unattractive for private capital. Usually they are characterized by significant capital investments, slow return on investment, and the absence of excess profits.
Balanced development Russian economy requires the accelerated development of the industries of production and social infrastructure, which is explained by their certain lag in the past, disproportionate (especially territorial and regional) development. It is obvious that this can be achieved only with significant participation of the state.
Structural restructuring of the economy also presupposes smoothing out the uneven technical equipment of backward industries and enterprises, overcoming the persisting tendencies towards monopolization, and reducing the level of concentration in individual industries and types of production.
Most high level concentration observed in the industry. This is especially typical of heavy industry, primarily such industries as the electric power industry, ferrous metallurgy, and petrochemistry. However, recently there has been a tendency to build relatively small enterprises, for example, in engineering, ferrous metallurgy, and the textile industry. This process is connected, in particular, with the need to develop small and medium-sized cities by placing specialized industries, branches of enterprises and associations, duplicating industries in them, which contributes to the creation of conditions for the market.
Regional aspects of structural adjustment
The vast territory of Russia, the difference natural conditions, various conditions of previous development give rise to great regional diversity, special specifics of regional interests and conditions for the formation of market relations. From the point of view of the sectoral structure of the economy, three groups of Russian regions are usually distinguished:
- mining (Tyumen, Yakutia, Khanty-Mansiysk and Yamalo-Nenets districts, etc.);
- industrial, focused on the all-Russian market (Central Russia, the Urals, Kuzbass, etc.);
- agro-industrial (Chernozem, Volga, Kuban, Stavropol, etc.).
The transition to market economic conditions is uneven in different regions. So, for example, Moscow is the clear leader, where the bulk of commercial banks and various financial institutions, while in predominantly rural regions, old economic forms are largely preserved.
Only a small part of the regions have stable internal sources capital for their development, the rest depend on the non-market redistribution of funds through the federal budget.
One of the ways to reduce regional differentiation is the development of intra- and inter-regional, including industrial, ties, as well as the creation of regional associations united by common economic interests and conditions.
Initially, associations arose on the basis of the geographical proximity of regions to each other, recently economic factor, i.e. community of economic interests of regions. For example, a grouping of donor regions Moscow-Khanty-Mansiysk has been created.
Convergence and consolidation of the interests of various regions, on the one hand, indicate that regional leaders are aware of the benefits of economic and political integration and are ready for joint action in the common interest.
On the other hand, such a practice can also have negative consequences: the strengthening of some regional groups can lead to undesirable competition between territories, the desire to “enclose” local markets with administrative barriers.
It should not be overlooked that the process of active development of market relations that has begun is also capable of generating or intensifying structural disproportions in the national economy. The experience of the past five years shows, for example, that the implementation of market reforms in Russia eliminated the existing imbalance between the commodity and money supply, but led to a significant predominance of finance capital over industrial capital. Moreover, the transition to market economic conditions is carried out differently in different industries. For example, in the financial and credit sphere, fast development modern forms and types of activities that are fully consistent with countries with a mature market economy, while in agriculture the old forms and conditions of management continue to be reproduced, primitive market forms are developing.
Conclusion
1. The national economic complex reflects the economic and social development of society, the deepening of the division of labor, and the integration processes taking place in the world.
2. The economy is divided into various spheres and divisions: material production and non-production sphere, sector of non-financial and financial corporations, the government and household sector, the science sector and the rest of the world.
3. Industry structure reflects the main types of production and economic activities: market and non-market production, industries that produce goods or provide services, mixed industries.
4. The enterprise must be considered in the system of the national economy. The processes taking place in the national economic complex affect all aspects of the enterprise, determine the direction of its further development.
5. Knowledge of economic development trends at the macro level is necessary to develop forward-looking policy enterprise, increasing its competitiveness.
6. State economic policy regulates the processes taking place in the national economic complex, directly affects various aspects of the enterprise.
7. Structural restructuring of the economy reflects the processes taking place in various fields economy: industries, regions, in the field of capital investments and investments.
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The national economy is structured according to reproduced and sectoral characteristics.
The reproductive structure involves the division of the social product according to the principle of their functional purpose.
Sectoral structure is the division of the economic system according to the main types of activities. The structure of social production presupposes the existence of national economic proportions. Let's consider them.
General economic proportions reflect quantitative correlations, for example, between accumulation and consumption, between the production of means of production and the production of consumer goods, etc. All of them relate to social reproduction at the macroeconomic level.
Intersectoral proportions are quantitative ratios between various sectors of social production, for example, between the mining and processing industries, between industry and agriculture, etc.
Intra-industry proportions are the quantitative ratios between the individual industries of the industry (for example, lumber harvesting and furniture manufacturing).
Interstate proportions are quantitative ratios between national industries of production of various countries.
Economists of various schools offer their own options for achieving proportionality in the development of the economy. One of the first options was proposed by K. Marx in 1885 in the second volume of Capital in his famous schemes of reproduction.
He proceeded from the fact that there are two divisions in production: the first (I), where the means of production are produced (machine-building products), and the second (II), where consumer goods are created (life support). The need to single out these two divisions is due to the fact that the means of production and commodities perform different functions: the first serve to reproduce the material elements of the productive forces (replacement of equipment), the second - to reproduce the human factor.
Modern social reproduction is more complex and voluminous than that studied by K. Marx. It covers not only material production (I and II divisions), but also the non-material and military economy, which form the III and IV spheres.
The more ramified and complex connections that now exist between them no longer fit into Marx's scheme.
In modern Western literature (A. Fischer, K. Clark) the theory of "three sectors" is used. This theory is based on the division of all sectors of the national economy into "primary", "secondary" and "tertiary" sectors.
The "primary sector" includes industries associated with the production, extraction and use of natural resources (agriculture, forestry, fisheries).
The "secondary sector" consists of manufacturing industries. The extractive industry is sometimes referred to the first, sometimes to the second sector.
The “tertiary” includes the “service industries” - transport, public services, construction, trade, finance, education, healthcare, the state apparatus, the army, etc.
The organizational and economic structure reflects the relations that develop in the process of organizing the production of a social product. This structure is characterized by a system of proportions between the shares of the social product, created by economic units, which are grouped according to the level of concentration or specialization of production.
From the point of view of the concentration of production, it can be represented by the ratio of the shares of large, medium and small enterprises in sectoral production, GNP or GDP; from the point of view of specialization - the proportion between the shares of specialized or diversified industries, calculated both for the national economy as a whole and in terms of sectors. Considered in their unity, both varieties of the organizational and economic structure quite fully characterize the level of technological monopolization of production that has developed in the national economy.
The socio-economic structure characterizes, on the one hand, the contribution of enterprises of various forms of ownership to the production of a social product, on the other hand, the differentiation of incomes of various groups of the population.
Organizational-economic and social structure public product in Russian Federation undergo significant changes in the course of the creation of a modern market system. In the pre-reform period, the organizational and economic structure of Russia, compared with countries with a developed market economy, was distinguished by an extremely high concentration of production, and the socio-economic structure was characterized by an almost undivided dominance of the state form of ownership and a relatively even distribution of income among various groups of the population. The deployment of the processes of privatization and demonopolization of production, the development of small business led to a decrease in the level of concentration of production, an increase in the share of the private sector of the economy and an increase in income differentiation.
As a system, the national economy has certain indicators characterizing the level of its development. The identity of the indicators, based on a common method for calculating them, simultaneously allows for international comparisons and the output of aggregate data for the global economy as a whole.
The economic potential reflects the volume, structure, quality and technical level of goods and services produced in it, as well as the material and spiritual values accumulated in the country and abroad. For its complete characterization, a number of indicators are needed, but the main ones are gross domestic product, gross national product and national wealth. To finally determine the economic potential, it is necessary to compare it with similar indicators in other countries.
National wealth (NB) is the totality of the country's resources necessary for the production of goods, the provision of services and the livelihoods of people. It includes: non-financial production and non-productive assets, financial assets(passive), direct foreign investment, durable goods in households. When evaluating the elements of national wealth, both natural and cost indicators are used. Data on national wealth make it possible to assess the economic potential of the country, the level of economic development and the degree of well-being of the population.
National income (ND) -- the part of the gross domestic product that remains after deducting the costs of its production, National income can be: a) produced, b) used for consumption and accumulation.
The most universal indicator for assessing the domestic economic potential of any country is the volume of gross domestic product (GDP). According to GDP indicators, it is possible to determine the value of goods and services produced by the national economy and intended for final consumption, accumulation and export.
GDP is calculated in three ways: by production - as the sum of the value added of all branches of material production and the service sector; by distribution - as the sum of public and private consumption, public and private investment, increase or decrease in stocks; by income - as a sum wages employees, all types of profits, rental income, depreciation and indirect taxes. All three methods of calculating GDP should give the same result. Dynamism and sustainability economic development countries are determined by another indicator - the average annual GDP growth rate. Complementing the overall picture is the calculation of GDP per capita.
When analyzing the national economy in economic research, such concepts as sphere, industry, sector of the economy are usually used.
Spheres of the economy
From the point of view of participation in the creation of the total social product and national income, social production is divided into two large areas: material production and the non-productive sphere.
Material production includes industry, agriculture and forestry, freight transport, communications (serving material production), construction, trade, public catering, information and computing services, and other activities in the sphere of material production. The non-productive sphere includes housing and communal services, passenger transport, communications (serving organizations of the non-productive sphere and the population), health care, physical culture and social security, public education, culture and art, science and scientific services, lending and insurance, and the activities of the administrative apparatus.
Branches of the economy
Spheres of economy are subdivided into specialized branches. Industry - a group of qualitatively homogeneous economic units (enterprises, organizations, institutions) characterized by special conditions of production in the system of social division of labor, homogeneous products and performing a common (specific) function in the national economy.
For example, the sphere of material production includes branches in which the means of production and consumer goods necessary for the life and development of society are created.
The sectoral division of the economy is the result of a historical process, the development of the social division of labor.
Each of the specialized industries, in turn, is subdivided into complex industries and types of industries. In the industry, for example, there are more than 15 such large industries as electric power, fuel industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, mechanical engineering and metalworking, forestry, pulp and paper industry, building materials industry, light and food industries and others. industries.
Specialized industries are characterized by varying degrees of differentiation of production. The development of society and the economy, the further deepening of the specialization of production leads to the formation of new industries and types of production. Simultaneously with specialization and differentiation, there are processes of cooperation, integration of production, leading to the development of stable production relations between industries, to the creation of mixed industries and intersectoral complexes.
Intersectoral complexes
Intersectoral complex - an integration structure that characterizes the interaction of various industries and their elements, different stages of production and distribution of the product.
Intersectoral complexes arise and develop both within a separate sector of the economy and between different sectors. In the composition of industry, for example, there are fuel and energy, metallurgical, machine-building and other complexes. The agro-industrial and construction complexes, which unite different branches of the national economy, are distinguished by a more complex structure.
Intersectoral national economic complexes can be conditionally divided into target and functional ones. The selection of target complexes is based on the reproductive principle and the criterion of participation in the creation of the final product. For example, one can single out the machine-building complex, the fuel and energy and agro-industrial complex, the forestry and
mineral resource complex, transport complex, etc.
The allocation of functional complexes is based on the principle and criterion of specialization of the complex for a certain function. Here it is possible to single out investment and infrastructure complexes, a scientific and technical complex, and, to a certain extent, an ecological complex.
On the basis of the division of labor, one can distinguish diversified and single-industry complexes, territorial production complexes, intersectoral scientific and technical complexes.
Sectors of the economy
The constituent elements of the national economic complex can be grouped according to various economic characteristics. In foreign studies, on the basis of the system of national accounts, large sectors of the economy are singled out for a generalizing characteristic of economic processes.
A sector is understood as a set of institutional units that have similar economic goals, functions and behavior. These typically include: the enterprise sector, the household sector, the government sector and the external sector. The enterprise sector is usually subdivided into the financial enterprise sector and the non-financial enterprise sector.
The sector of non-financial enterprises includes enterprises engaged in the production of goods and services for the purpose of making a profit, and non-profit organizations that do not pursue the goal of making a profit. Depending on who controls their activities, they, in turn, are divided into state, national, private and foreign non-financial enterprises.
The financial enterprise sector covers institutional units engaged in financial intermediation.
The government sector is the totality of legislative, judicial and executive authorities, social security funds and non-profit organizations controlled by them.
The household sector includes mainly consuming units, i.e. households and the enterprises formed by them.
The external sector, or the "rest of the world" sector, is a set of institutional units - non-residents of a given country (i.e. located outside the country) with economic ties, as well as embassies, consulates, military bases, international organizations located in the territory of this countries.
According to the degree of connection with the market in the national economy, the market and non-market sectors are often distinguished.
The market sector covers the production of goods and services intended for sale on the market at prices that have a significant impact on the demand for these goods or services, as well as the exchange of goods and services by barter, wages in kind and stocks of finished goods.
Non-market sector - the production of products and services intended for use directly by producers or owners of the enterprise, as well as provided to other consumers free of charge or at prices that do not affect demand.
Sometimes mixed industries are additionally identified that provide market and non-market services.
According to international statistics, the economy is usually divided into industries that produce goods and industries that provide services. The first group includes industry, agriculture, construction and other branches of material production (publishing, recycling of secondary raw materials, collection of wild mushrooms and berries, etc.). Service-providing industries include education, transport, trade, healthcare, general government, defense, and others.
National economic complex of Russia.
Spheres and subdivisions of the economy.
The economy of any country is a single complex of interrelated industries.
The national economic complex has specific sectoral, reproductive, regional and other structural characteristics.
When analyzing the national economy in economic research, such concepts as sphere, industry, sector of the economy are usually used.
From the point of view of participation in the creation of the total social product and national income, social production is divided into two large areas: material production and the non-productive sphere.
To material production include industry, agriculture and forestry, freight transport, communications (serving material production), construction, trade, public catering, information and computing services. To non-productive sphere include housing and communal services, passenger transport, communications (serving organizations of the non-productive sphere and the population), health care, physical culture and social security, public education, culture and art, science and scientific services, lending and insurance, and the activities of the administrative apparatus.
The sectors of the economy are divided into specialized industries. .
For example, sphere of material production includes industries in which the means of production and consumer goods necessary for the life and development of society are created.
Each of the specialized industries, in turn, is subdivided into complex industries and types of industries. The industry, for example, includes more than 15 such large industries as the electric power industry, the fuel industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, the chemical and petrochemical industry, mechanical engineering and metalworking, the timber, pulp and paper industries, etc.
Intersectoral complexes arise and develop both within a single sector of the economy, and between different sectors. In the composition of industry, for example, there are fuel and energy, metallurgical, machine-building and other complexes.
Under sector of the economy refers to a set of institutional units that have similar economic goals, functions and behavior. These typically include: the enterprise sector, the household sector, the government sector and the external sector. The enterprise sector is usually subdivided into the financial enterprise sector and the non-financial enterprise sector.
The existing relationships (proportions) between macroeconomic elements are commonly called economic structure. Usually, sectoral, reproductive, regional and other types of economic structures are distinguished.
The specificity of structural adjustment in Russia lies in the fact that it is carried out in the conditions of a transformational recession that accompanies any transition from one economic system to another. Structural adjustment is carried out in the context of changes in the forms and methods of state influence on the economy, a significant reduction in government spending and centralized lending.
The main directions of structural adjustment are the curtailment and re-profiling of objectively unnecessary and incapacitated enterprises, slowing down the fall and stabilizing the output of products that are in demand in the domestic and foreign markets; creation of conditions for the revival and development of promising activities that form the real economic potential of the country.
Russia is a country with a developed industry. It accounts for 3/5 of the total gross social product, more than 2/5 of the national income, about 1/2 of the production fixed assets, and, together with construction, approximately 2/5 of the population employed in social production. Industry primarily determines the production and scientific and technical potential, the degree and efficiency of the use of natural, material and labor resources. It serves as the basis for the formation of territorial production complexes.
