What is a national economy? Sectoral structure of the economy of Russia The national economy of the Russian Federation is.

This term was not clear to me since the time I studied the course economic theory at University. First of all, because under the "national economy" the terms "national economy" and "national economy" can also be hidden. Different economic theories can consider them both as identical and as separate ones. But even between them I was able to identify commonalities.

national economy

In the course of economic theories developed in Germany at the end of the 19th century, such an economy was equal to the national economy. In Russia after the revolution, where a lot of things were based on the economic works of the Germans Marx and Engels, this term has already been transformed into the national economy, but the peculiarity was that all means of labor were nationalized, that is, they began to belong to the state. Based on the original version, the national economy is a system of economic relations where the production, exchange and consumption of the results of labor that are significant for state reproduction take place, taking into account its national characteristics. Simply put, the results of the work of human society are aimed at increasing the welfare of the state, and the national specificity will be the industry in which this people has historically been engaged. The national economy is formed by the following sectors of the economy:

Private.
State.
Foreign.

The predominance of only the public and private sectors in the reproduction system leads to the creation of a closed economy.

Russian classifiers

To achieve the goals state statistics and accounting in the USSR, the OKONH index was created (classifier of industries National economy).

In it (from industry to finance) everything was assigned to the exclusive competence of the state. With coming market economy and the fall of such industries into private or foreign "hands", they began to apply OKVED (classifier of types of economic activity), that is, not everything belongs only to the state-people. This situation once again confirms the inequality between the "national" and "national" economies.

The national economy is a complex multi-level system consisting of many different kinds of elements: sectors, complexes, industries, etc. Their composition and the relationship between individual elements form the macrostructure of the economy.

Structure theory plays a very important role in explaining the patterns of functioning of the national economic system. It reflects the underlying factors economic dynamics, the results of the reproduction process. The growth in output in value terms is affected by price reductions under the influence of scientific and technical progress and other qualitative factors, which leads to a relative decrease in reproduction volumes. Economic progress in this case is embodied in the parameters of the macrostructure, in structural transformations. national economy, which provides the so-called structural effect. At the same time, abrupt changes in the structure cause structural crises, leading to very painful consequences for national economy and international economic relations. Thus, the energy crisis of 1973, caused by a sharp rise in world oil prices, had a profound and long-term impact on the development of the economies of many countries, changed the attitude of the population and governments to the problem of resource conservation. Big shocks are caused by financial, currency crises, overproduction or underproduction of agricultural products (agrarian crises). Sharp structural changes are associated with the industrialization or de-industrialization of the country, the militarization of the economy.

The structure of the national economy (macrostructure) can be considered in various aspects: from the point of view of the composition and correlation of areas of activity (sectors of the economy), sectoral composition, in terms of reproduction and regional aspects. Of no small importance are the structural correlations of individual aspects of the economy (foreign trade structure, composition, correlation of economic potential, national wealth, etc.). Currently, based on the national accounting system, statistics distinguish 5 institutional sectors:

non-financial enterprises;
financial institutions;
state institutions;
non-profit organizations;
households.

In terms of industry classification economic activity according to them functional purpose distinguish the following areas:

1. Material production or commodity sector: Agriculture, industry, construction, water, gas and energy supply, in which material goods (goods) are produced.
2. Sphere (sector) of commodity services and distribution: transport, trade and storage, where the distribution of material goods is carried out - mediation between material production and the population.
3. The sphere of intangible services: education and culture, health care and physical culture, sports, social service, other state organizations, it also reflects the depreciation of the country's fixed assets.

Statistics on the National Accounting System (SNA) now distinguishes the following types of economic activity:

1. Agriculture, hunting and forestry;
2. Fishing and fish farming;
3. Mining;
4. Manufacturing industries;
5. Production and distribution of electricity, gas and water;
6. Construction;
7. Wholesale and retail, repair of vehicles and personal items;
8. Hotels and restaurants;
9. Transport and communications;
10. Financial activities;
11. Operations with real estate, rental and provision

12. Public administration and military security, compulsory social security;
13. Education;
14. Health care and service delivery;
15. Provision of other communal, social and personal services.

The reproductive structure of the national economy is considered in the context of the relationship between consumption and accumulation, between the elements of fixed assets, the sphere of production and the sphere of services.

The share of accumulation in the newly produced product is very important for economic development. Typically, the share of savings for developed countries is 15-20% national income(for Japan - up to 30%). In Russia, the share of savings has declined significantly over the past 20 years and is about 15%.

The sectoral structure of industry and agriculture has become the most widespread.

Statistics include 16 sectors of industry: energy, which includes 7 industries, fuel industry (16 industries), ferrous metallurgy (11), non-ferrous metallurgy (36), chemical and petrochemical industry (32), mechanical engineering and metalworking (136), timber, woodworking and pulp and paper industry (19), building materials industry (32), glass and porcelain and faience industry (10), light industry (48), food industry (34), microbiological industry (7), flour and cereals and feed industry (2), medical industry (3), printing industry and other industries (13 industries).

The sectoral structure by types of activity in 2012 looked like in the following way: agriculture, hunting and forestry - 3.8% of GDP; mining - 10.9; manufacturing industries - 15.9; production and distribution of electricity, gas and water - 5.1; construction - 6.5; trade - 19.7; transport and communication - 8.2; financial activities 17.1; state administration - 13.5%.

There is a tendency to unite individual industries into larger, homogeneous complexes (fuel and energy, mining and metallurgical, military-industrial, aipapHO-industrial, consumer, etc.). Abroad, the concept of clusters of industries is used (production of goods for the home, a healthcare cluster, which includes pharmaceuticals, the production of medical equipment, etc.). Clusters are also forming in Russia. Thus, a textile cluster was created in the Ivanovo region.

The core of the modern economy is the knowledge-intensive, high-tech sector. The latter includes aerospace complex, radio-electronic complex, specialized military-oriented industries", high-tech sector of the chemical industry", nuclear industry, including the production of electricity at nuclear power plants, as well as the disposal of nuclear waste.

Of great importance in Russia is the fuel and energy complex, which accounts for about 30% of industrial output, 32% of consolidated budget revenues and 54% federal budget, 54% of exports and 45% of foreign exchange earnings. The mining and metallurgical complex accounts for 16.3% of industrial output, ferrous metallurgy provides 8% of revenue, 6% of payments to the budget and 12 billion rubles. contributions to extrabudgetary funds.

Of particular importance for a socially oriented economy is the consumer complex - a set of industries and types of economic activity engaged in the production of consumer goods and the provision of services to the population. The consumer complex has undergone significant transformations in the post-reform years - the development of the main industries and industries has sharply slowed down under the influence of a general recession and an influx of foreign goods. At the same time, the volume of services rendered to the population increased. The share of all services exceeds half of the GDP created in Russia (53.5%).

Structure industrial production Russia still has a raw material character, the share of innovative industries is low. In 2012, oil with condensate was produced - 508.3 million tons (Russia was the world's largest oil producer), natural gas - 655 billion cubic meters. m. (second place in the world after the USA), coal - 366 million tons of standard fuel (third place in the world after the USA and China). Electricity generated - 1069.3 billion kWh, including nuclear power plants - 173 billion kWh. (16%). The largest volume of electricity production is observed in the Tyumen region (103 billion kWh), Irkutsk region (62.6 billion kWh), Krasnoyarsk region (56.7 billion kWh).

One of the effective tools for analyzing the macrostructure is the intersectoral balance (IBI), which is a chess table, where the subject and predicate are the branches of the national economy. The idea of intersectoral balance was put economic table Caene (1783). For the first time it began to be developed in the 20s of the twentieth century in the USSR, its development is associated with the name of V.V. analysis of the American economy. In the future, interest in the development of interbranch balances resumed in the fifties in connection with the development of economic and mathematical methods and the use of computers. Latest MOB options Russian economy but national accounting systems were developed in 1991, 1995 and 2011.

The modern scheme of MOB is represented by three quadrants. The first quadrant reflects intra-production consumption (simple reproduction), i.e., is an intermediate product.

The second quadrant reflects the final product, which is directed to personal and public consumption, it also includes capital accumulation and the results of foreign trade.

The third quadrant characterizes the production of national income, that is, it reflects the value profile of national production - the so-called conditionally net production (value added). Previously, the fourth quadrant was singled out, which reflected the process of redistribution of national income.

The SNA MOB scheme uses gross national product (GNP) and domestic product (GDP), i.e., MOB includes services. In this scheme, the range of industries has expanded, sources of income are reflected in more detail.

The main characteristics of the input-output balance, along with the final and intermediate product are the coefficients of direct and total costs. The former characterize the costs of a given industry per unit of output of other industries, the latter reflect the costs of the entire range of related industries per unit of output of this industry.

An analysis of the input-output balance of both the country and individual regions makes it possible to see real structure national economy, intersectoral relations and the efficiency of the national economy.

The territorial structure characterizes the share separate parts and regions in the volume of produced GDP and other economic indicators. The share of industrial and agricultural production in the European and Asian zones of Russia is presented in Table. 2.1.

Share of European and Asian zones of Russia, %

Table 2.1

As can be seen from the table, the processing industry prevails in the European zone: mechanical engineering (90%), etc. In good times, the share of ferrous metallurgy is large - 85%, chemical and petrochemical industries - 84%, and even timber and pulp and paper - 70%.

Extractive industries dominate in the Asian zone: fuel - 56.4%, non-ferrous metallurgy - 62%. Siberia and Far East in 2013, they provided 390 billion dollars, the country's foreign exchange earnings out of 527 billion dollars (74%).

In accordance with the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC), economic activity is defined as a combination of activities that lead to a certain list of products. A branch of the economy is the totality of all production units that carry out the same or similar type of production activity.

National economy (national economy) - this is a single system of national and social reproduction of the state, in which industries, types and forms of social labor are interconnected, which have developed as a result of a long historical evolutionary development of a particular country.

The national economy is a complex systemic phenomenon, consisting of independent elements, determined by various criteria. In accordance with the defined criteria, the structure of the national economy is formed.

Reproductive structure of the national economy . Classified according to the criterion of the presence of various phases business processes. With this approach, macroeconomic links are distinguished between production and consumption, accumulation and consumption, production and circulation.

The social structure of the national economy . It is characterized by such a criterion as property relations. In accordance with this criterion, in countries with a developed market economy, two large sectors are distinguished: public and private (including individual, joint-stock and other forms of ownership).

Sectoral structure of the national economy . It is classified according to the totality of sectors of the economy and the definition of the nature and essence of the relationship between them. Branches of the national economy are units of the national economy that, in the process social production perform similar functional tasks.

Sectoral structure of the national economy . Its main criterion is an institutional unit - a unit that independently makes decisions, manages material and financial resources, incurs obligations, carries out economic activities and transactions with other units.
This grouping includes the following sectors: non-financial enterprises; financial institutions; state institutions; non-profit organizations serving households; the household sector; sector of enterprises carrying out foreign economic activity("the rest of the world").

Territorial structure of the national economy . It is characterized by the criterion of the geographical distribution of productive forces within the national economy. In Russia, elements of this structure can be distinguished in accordance with the accepted administrative division into federal districts, regions, districts, etc.

The structure of the national economy presupposes the presence of macroeconomic proportions - the quantitative and qualitative ratio of individual parts and spheres of social production. Proportionality is the basis of a balanced (equilibrium) state of the national economy . Here we are talking about the coincidence of values aggregate demand with similar parameters of aggregate supply - income and expenses, which, within the framework of economic turnover, reflect the state budget as a set of budgets of economic entities in their interconnection.

Since in a market economy the expenditure of one entity becomes the income of another, and vice versa, all budgets are interconnected, and a circulation of funds is formed in the economic system. The national economic cycle is a set of budgets of economic entities in their interconnection . The representation of the national economic cycle through accounting accounts is the essence of the national accounting system.

System of National Accounts (SNA) - used in developed countries system of national accounting, statistics on a national scale, based on generalization and systematization macroeconomic indicators and balance sheets. The SNA is based on the following principles : balancing income and expenses using the double stock method, valuation of all goods and services, separate accounting on special accounts of financial and redistributive flows.

Analysis in the system of national accounts is based on the use of a number of indicators. Let's list main indicators of the system of national accounts .

Gross national product (GNP) - takes into account the total cost of manufactured products due to factors of production owned by citizens of a given country (regardless of which country the income is received). There are three methods for calculating the gross national product:
Potential output of GNP - this is the level of output, which implies the involvement of all economic resources in the economic turnover, that is, with full time and full production. Actual output may be more or less than potential. The assessment is made using the definition of the "gap" between them, which is usually determined for the economic cycle.
For a short-term period (a year), nominal and real GNP are determined. Nominal GNP is the cost finished goods and services produced in the country's economy during the year at current prices. Real GNP - the value of all manufactured goods and services produced in a given year, taking into account the prices of the base year.
Ratio of nominal GNP to real GNP called price index or GNP deflator .

Gross domestic product (GDP) - covers the finished value of all final products created within the country (i.e., it takes into account the income of resource suppliers, regardless of citizenship: resident, non-resident). The ratio between GNP and GDP: GNP = GDP + Balance of primary income received from abroad or transferred abroad (such primary income usually includes wages, income from property in the form of dividends).

Net national product (NNP) - this is the GNP created minus that part of the product that is necessary to replace the means of production worn out in the process of production (depreciation).

National Income (ND) - this is the sum of the incomes of all owners involved in the production of factors - this is the sum of wages, profits, interest and rent. NI is defined as NNP less indirect business taxes.

Personal income (LD) - household income - obtained by subtracting from the ND contributions to social insurance, retained earnings corporations, corporate income taxes and adding transfer payments. It is also necessary to subtract net interest and add personal income received in the form of interest, including interest on the public debt.

disposable income calculated as a decrease personal income for the amount income tax from citizens and some non-tax payments to the state. Disposable income is used for consumption and savings.

16 See: Moore G.E. Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits // Electronics. 1965. No. 38(8), April 19. P. 114-117.

17 See: Gilder G.F. Telecosm: How Infinite Bandwidth Will Revolutionize Our World. N.Y.: Free Press, 2000. P. 12, 70.

18 Sakaya T. Decree. op. S. 351.

19 On the graph, the point ^ corresponds to the limit of UDC 330.34

production costs of a licensed copy information product, Sk - counterfeit (pirated) copy.

20 Sagittarius I.A. Decree. op. pp. 22-23.

21 Ibid. S. 23.

22 Stuart T. Decree. op. S. 391.

23 Buzgalin A.V. Decree op. S. 33.

NATIONAL ECONOMY AS AN OBJECT OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

E.A. Orekhova

Saratov State University,

Department of Economic Theory and National Economy

Email: [email protected]

The concept of the system of the national economy is disclosed, its general and special properties are singled out. It is substantiated that the economic development of the national economy is characterized by unevenness and impulsiveness. The main types of dynamics of economic development are defined and characterized.

National Facilities (Economy) as Object of Economic Development E.A. Orekhova

In the article idea about the system of a National Economy and its general and especial properties are discussed. Also definition of the moving forces and trends of economic development is given its basic types are characterized. It is established, that moving forses and trends of economic development of a National Economy is characterized by non-uniformity, impulsiveness and discontinuity.

The system of the national economy is a set of economic resources and economic entities, interconnected and interacting with each other in the field of social reproduction. It has certain properties: system-wide (characteristic of all systems) and special (characteristic only for the national economy system). The system-wide properties of the national economy include its integrity, hierarchy and integrativity.

The integrity of the national economy is manifested in the fact that a change in the structure, relationships and behavior of individual economic entities has an impact on all other economic entities and changes the system as a whole, as well as a change in the national economy as a whole causes a transformation of its structure, relationships and behavior of economic entities.

The hierarchical nature of the national economy means that it is included by a subsystem in a system of a higher order - world economy, and each of its components is also a system. Decomposition of the national economy system with

the allocation of its subsystems up to the elementary level was reflected in Fig.11. The structure of the national economy system is complex, has several levels and outwardly resembles a branched tree. enough on the first level big number subsystems (components) of the national economy - such economic institutions as a state territorial entities, industries, households. Further, the subsystems of the previous level break up into a set of several subsystems of the lower level, and so on. The basis of the structuring factor of the national economy system is the economic interests of economic entities (individual, collective, national). Aggregate economic interests is realized in a process that unites all parts of the national economy system together, in the system-forming (structuring) process of social reproduction.

According to the hierarchy rule, the national economy system and its subsystems, as well as subsystems of subsystems, have different levels of complexity, belong to different classes, and cannot have the same level of hierarchy. Lower level systems can be described more accurately, have less uncertainty in economic development. Hierarchy in the system of the national economy is relative: any of its levels has a certain degree of autonomy. The primary element of the national economy system is the individual with his needs, and not by himself, but in the totality of his social connections and relations, as a socially conditioned being. Since the individual realizes himself not in solitude, but in society, being a “product” of the entire previous history of mankind, he can be considered not only as a subject, but also as an object of economic development.

The integrativity of the national economy is the possession of properties,

National economy system

Rice. 1. Components of the national economy system and their respective business entities

missing from its components. A single economy (firms, enterprises) is a predominantly technical and technological category, its laws are the laws of engineering and technology. The transfer to the national economy of the properties of an individual economy would mean its subordination precisely to these laws and the denial of its social character2. The main "integrative" quality of the national economy system

Integrity is not characteristic of its constituent parts. It ensures the isolation of the system of the national economy, its functioning as a single whole organism. The integration of parts of the national economy system occurs in the process of formation of this system.

Among the special properties of the system of the national economy, it is advisable to highlight the following.

1. Subsystems of the national economy have fuzzy boundaries: the same business entity can simultaneously take part in various processes of self-organization of the national economy system, can be both a component of both the self-organizing system of the national economy and its environment. In particular, the state, on the one hand, acts as a part of the environment of the national economy, exercising administrative regulation, social control, legislative formalization economic life of society, protection of domestic producers from outside competition, and on the other hand, the state is a component of the national economy, acting as an owner, entrepreneur or partner of private business.

2. Separate components and elements of the national economy system are united by flexible probabilistic bureaucratic, market, ethical and aggressive ties3 that are characteristic of different spheres of economic life and complement each other. The nature of these links is determined by the very components and elements of the national economy system. Bureaucratic ties are vertical, regulated, carried out between components of many levels, based on coercion, subordination and are not always mediated by money. They are typical for state structures and totalitarian national economies. Market relations are horizontal in nature and are formed on the basis of an agreement between legally equal business entities. They, as a rule, are mediated by money and are established, first of all, between producers and consumers of goods and services. Ethical relationships can be both horizontal and vertical. They are carried out between equal business entities, and between entities of different levels (for example, between the state and the firm). These connections are based either on the expectation of mutual help or on one-sided altruism and may or may not be mediated by money. There are such bonds in households and communities. Aggressive ties are vertical in nature and are carried out through the force of coercion between strong and subject to this force of business entities, may be mediated by money, or may not be mediated by them.

Such connections are typical for shadow economy and totalitarian states.

3. The structure of the national economy system is variable, mobile, and non-linear. In different phases of economic development, the structure of the national economy plays a different role: if during the period of evolutionary changes it ensures stability, stability of the system, extinguishing fluctuations that arise inside it and originate from the environment, then at the bifurcation point, on the contrary, it is one of the first to be transformed, and after it followed by changes in the relationships and behavior of the components and the system itself. By changing its structure, the system of the national economy adapts to the conditions of the internal and external environment of its existence.

4. The structure of the national economy system is connected with the consciously put forward goal of economic development and the control mechanisms through which the structure of the whole actively influences the parts, their functioning and development. The final result of the aspirations of the national economy - the achievement of maximum stability in the relationship between economic entities and the external environment - forces the national economy to adapt to changing conditions of existence, to cyclically go through the stages of formation, prosperity, chaos and destruction in its development. In the course of this movement, the national economy constantly increases the degree of determinism in its "behavior", leaving the only possible and uncontested options for responding to the "challenges" of the external environment. Reaching the optimum this moment correlation of determinism and freedom, it sooner or later faces the need to adjust the ideal in accordance with new needs and conditions. With the collapse of the old ideal, the next cycle begins, at the beginning of which several options for the further development of the national economy can be traced. And again, the decisive role in this choice is played by the ideals "offered" to the national economy, and the old ideal is not always discarded, but is often regarded as preferable.

5. The system of the national economy is characterized by coherence, which means that its components and elements are characterized by a joint, cooperative action, as a result of which they strengthen or weaken each other. Consequently, the speed of economic processes in the system of the national economy depends on the level of its economic development, the type of system. The constant violation of the state of equilibrium, the lack of equilibrium as such in the system of the national economy serves as that irresistible motive force that causes its development. It is possible to introduce a new component, element or qualitative

the rebirth of the existing one, which will cause a change in the nature of the joint action of the components, elements of the national economy system. On the contrary, a stable equilibrium of the national economic system means its ignoring all kinds of changes and influences directed at it, its complete indifference towards them.

6. The national economy can be either an open or a closed system. On the one hand, any system of the national economy is open, since it actively interacts with its natural external environment: the movement of matter, energy and information is completely unhindered. The system of the national economy experiences the active action of the natural environment and at the same time itself affects the natural environment in a feedback manner. In addition, the closest and immediate external environment for the national economy is the social system of society and its subsystems (culture, religion, ethics, ideology, law, politics, science, education, management, technology, etc.), with which it is inextricably linked (Fig. .2). The national economic system is always open in relation to its own social system. For her, this is a natural environment, outside of which she can neither exist nor develop, with the subsystems of which she has common elements. The national economy is immersed in the information field of its own social system, it is its surface layer of the immediate external environment, thanks to which all subsystems of the social system interact and the process of self-organization and their joint development is carried out.

On the other hand, the system of the national economy, being open in relation to its own social system and its subsystems, can simultaneously be closed to other social systems, systems of the national economy and the world economic system as a whole, acting as the second, superficial layer of its external environment (Fig. 3).

Taking into account the allocation of the world external environment, the systems of the national economy can be divided into systems that need interaction with this environment to attract additional matter, energy, information, and independent, self-developing systems that do not need relationships with this environment. From the point of view of the world market, the global system of connections, the national economy can be closed without much damage only if it is self-sufficient in terms of material and spiritual resources.

7. The source of economic development of the system of the national economy are contradictions: between the processes of functioning and development of the national economy;

Rice. 2. Isolation of the national economy system from the nearest and immediate external environment

World socio-economic system

Rice. 3. Isolation of the national economy system from the world external environment

between the desire of the national economy for order and chaos; between the goals of the national economy and the goals of economic entities in it; between the desire of the national economy for a sustainable state and the means to achieve it; between the functioning of the national economy and its structure, etc.4. In the evolutionary period of economic development, most of the above contradictions are only smoothed out: adaptation is opposed to exogenous entropic trends and contradictions, and the functioning of the national economy is opposed to endogenous ones; even the most ideal management can at best only mitigate these contradictions. The overdue contradictions are resolved at the time of the catastrophe (qualitative, spasmodic, sudden changes in economic development), after which they accumulate again, demanding their resolution.

8. The economic development of the national economy system is largely determined by the intensity of its interaction with a heterogeneous and very complex environment. The internal environment of the national economy includes: the state (as a force acting on economic entities), the internal social environment (its own social system and its subsystems), the internal environment (the state of nature of a given country). The external environment of the national economy includes: the external economic environment (national economies of other countries and the world economy as a whole), the external social environment (social systems of other countries and their subsystems), the external natural environment (the state of the natural environment of other countries).

The environment has a complex and multifaceted impact on the state and economic development of the national economy. On the one hand, the violation of order, the disorganization of the environment leads to an increase in the impact on the national economic system and its transition to an unstable state. For example, scarcity natural resources can become a serious problem for the development of national production; pursuance by the state of inadequate economic policy, the lack of proper legal and social norms, business culture can slow down the economic development of the national economy; a hostile external environment can cause an increase in the share of military spending, while reducing the efficiency of the national economy; the global external environment is capable of seriously competing with domestic producers, as a result of which the national economy will receive less taxes, domestic producers will receive less profit, and employees

Wages. On the other hand, environmental influences, regarded as control actions, first lead to a violation of the stability of the national economy system, and then (under the condition of a nonlinear dependence

between its parameters) to the emergence of a new economic order.

So, based on the identified general and special properties of the national economy, it can be characterized as an organic, open (closed), dynamically developing system. At the same time, the national economy is characterized by uneven economic development, characterized by unevenness, impulsiveness, and relative discontinuity. It experiences ups and downs, jumps and fluctuations, shocks and inertia, which is largely due to the need for dynamism. economic life and the possibility of such dynamism inherent in the national economy itself.

The dynamics of economic development is a peculiar way of this development, meaning the process of changing the states of movement of its parameters. This is a process of continuous change in the volume and structure of national production, expansion or reduction of the ability of the national economy to meet changing public needs and ensure the accumulation in the required amount. In the interpretation of the dynamics of economic development, there are quantitative and qualitative aspects of this concept. The first is reflected in the dynamics of changes in the volumes of the produced national product, the second - in the ability of the national economy to meet changing needs and ensure accumulation. These two sides are interconnected. And this relationship is complex, because the dynamics of the product being produced does not necessarily entail a new quality and an improvement or deterioration in the life of society.

The dynamics of the economic development of the national economy is the dynamics of reproduction and structural dynamics. Reproductive dynamics is understood as the dynamics of successive stages in the movement of a social product (production, distribution, exchange and consumption) in their unity, interconnection and interaction. In its development, the national economy is constantly renewed and reproduced. It moves in the course of a cycle, being in the process of constant repetition, as a result of which the needs of people are satisfied and material goods, factors of production, economic relations, organizational and managerial relations.

Being in essence the result of the development of national production, reproduction dynamics is not an attribute of only direct national production. Born in the depths production process, reproductive dynamics acquires its true content and essence only at the end of the reproductive chain, when the produced product becomes both realized and

consumed. Reproductive dynamics is realized through constant quantitative and qualitative changes in reproductive elements, which, in turn, are the result of mutual influence and interaction of production, distribution, exchange and consumption based on the mechanism of competition5.

Structural dynamics is understood as both the transformation of the entire structure of the national economy, which qualitatively changes the national economy, and the current variability, expressed in the mutual adaptation of parts of the structure to each other, in constant changes in their mutual relations, in the search for certain structural proportions and values. Structural dynamics are different. On the one hand, these are the dynamics of structurally dynamic components of the national economy, for example, market supply and demand, current flows of exports and imports. Here the structure of the national economy is constantly changing, and these changes are often significant. On the other hand, structural dynamics is the dynamics of not too dynamic components of the national economy, such as sectoral distributions of production and long-term capital investments. In this case, the structure of the national economy may remain unchanged for a long time, but it acquires the capacity for abrupt and very destructive restructuring6.

It hardly makes sense to prove the need for structural changes for economic development: it is already clear that without them the sustainable development of the national economy is impossible, since, with its stable structure, the reserves of economic development will sooner or later be exhausted. But this does not mean at all that the more structural changes in the national economy, the higher the rate of its development. It also happens the other way around: structural changes can become a serious obstacle to economic development. Abrupt changes in the structure of the national economy can lead to profound and rather acute consequences, covering both national and international economic relations.

In the dynamics of economic development, the contradictory nature of changes in the national economy manifests itself in a complex and diverse way. The opposite dynamics of individual indicators of economic development is objectively conditioned and quite natural: the growth of national production in an intensive form is opposed by its reduction in an extensive form; an increase in labor productivity implies a reduction in the total labor costs for the production of a unit of output; the growth of the organic composition of capital is associated with a decrease in the share of "human capital" in its total mass. In addition, during the economic

development against the background of the growth of national production in high-tech industries, its significant decrease is constantly observed in industries that do not have prospects for the transition to a new technological order.

One way or another, but the economic development of the national economy system necessarily manifests itself in a change in its elements (their quantity, properties) and structure, and a change in structure necessarily entails economic development or degradation of the national economy system, a change in the number and properties of its elements. It can be said that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the quality and, consequently, the properties of the national economic system and its structure. On this basis, it becomes technically possible to transfer the properties of the national economy system of one country to the national economy system of another country, or even the properties of the national economy system of one type to the national economy system of another type based on the isomorphism of their structures.

Changing the structure of the national economy, while maintaining the number of its constituent elements, entails a change in its complexity (the totality of the links between the elements). Simplifying the structure means more degrees of freedom and less order, while increasing the complexity of the structure, on the contrary, means fewer degrees of freedom and more order. To characterize the orderliness of the system, the concept of entropy is used as a measure of uncertainty, the order of the state or behavior of the system. The more ordered the system, the lower the corresponding entropy.

There is no direct relationship between an increase in the number of connections in a system and a change in its quality. The entropy, the quality of the structure, is affected only by the appearance of significant links between the elements of the national economy system (for example, links between industries and divisions of social reproduction, or links between commodity or money markets). These connections, by strengthening the dependence between the elements of the system and significantly reducing indirect connections, reduce the entropy of the system. The emergence of non-essential connections, relating only to those elements to which they relate directly, has almost no effect on the value of entropy. The quality of the national economy system is preserved within certain limits of change in the quantity and specific fixed properties of its elements, structure. And only the achievement of certain threshold values of these characteristics of the national economy system leads to its transition to a new level of development, to a new quality, the next stage of its economic development. The characteristics of the national economic system at each stage differ as

the presence of other properties of its constituent elements, structure, and the emergence of specific features of the national economy system as a whole, a change in the structuring process. Consequently, the difference between one system of the national economy and another is expressed in the number and properties of their elements, the features of the structures, the structuring factor and the systematizing process.

It is hard not to agree with S.V. Lyubimtseva that quantitative indicators can also serve as characteristics of the economic development of the system of the national economy: a change in the number of elements of the system, a change in the relationships between them, and a change in entropy. Thus, the progressive system of the national economy is characterized by an increase in the number of its elements and the growth of links between them. The regressing system of the national economy is accompanied by a reduction in the number of its elements and the links between them. These indicators can be used to describe the reproductive and innovative economic development of the national economy. Reproductive development is expressed in an increase in the number of elements of the national economy system, insignificant connections, entropy. With such development, the orderliness of the system weakens, it becomes less able to respond to any kind of perturbation. With innovative development, the entropy of the national economy system decreases and orderliness increases, the system becomes capable of greater adaptation in the external environment.

If the economic development of the national economy system is accompanied by an increase in the number

The table shows and characterizes the considered types of dynamics of the economic development of the national economy. Progressive types of dynamics in terms of the number of elements of the national economy system are arranged from less progressive to more progressive, regressing ones are arranged in the reverse order. In the course of economic development, movement is possible

its elements and the growth of entropy (as in the case of extensive development), but at the same time the relationship between the elements of the system is reduced, then such a development of the national economy is its degradation. In this case, the system of the national economy turns from a consumer of the substance, energy, information necessary for its existence, coming from the external environment, into a donor of the external environment, that is, it throws out substance, energy, information into the external environment. There is an imbalance in the interrelations of the national economy system, the system outwardly grows in volume, but this growth means its death.

Along with the types of dynamics characterized by an increase in the number of elements in the system of the national economy, there are also those that are associated with a reduction in the number of its elements. These include collapse, dissipation, and decay. The collapse means the reorganization of non-essential ties of the national economy system into essential ones. This is a process, the opposite of degradation, which means the renewal and strengthening of the integrative properties of the national economy system. Dissipation, like collapse, is accompanied by a decrease in entropy, that is, it leads to greater order in the system of the national economy. The loss of the number of elements of the national economic system in this case means its release from less "organized elements" that have lost their functions. The collapse of the national economy system implies a reduction in the number of its elements, connections and a decrease in order, which means the destruction of essential connections, primarily the loss of the most organized elements.

not only towards more progressive forms, but also a transition from reproductive and even innovative development to degradation, the disintegration of the national economy system. Without this, there is not and cannot be the very economic development of its organization, growth, search, adaptation. Without this, economic development stops and the national economy dies.

Characteristics of the dynamics of economic development of the national economy system

Types of economic development dynamics Changes in the parameters of the national economy system

the number of elements of the system of interconnections (orderliness) of the elements of the system the entropy of the system

Progressive (according to the number of system elements) types of dynamics

Degradation Growth (>0) Weakening (<0) Усиление (>0)

Reproductive development Growth (>0) Strengthening (>0) Strengthening (>0)

Innovative development Growth (>0) Strengthening (>0) Weakening (< 0)

Regressive (according to the number of system elements) types of dynamics

Collapse Reduction (< 0) Усиление (>0) Attenuation (< 0)

Dissipation Reduction (< 0) Ослабление (< 0) Ослабление (< 0)

Decay Reduction (< 0) Ослабление (< 0) Усиление (>0)

Note. Comp. Quoted from: Lyubimtseva S.V. Transformation of economic systems. M.: Economist, 2003. S. 59-61.

See: Kondratiev N.D. Basic problems of economic statics and dynamics: Preliminary sketch. M.: Nauka, 1991. S. 84.

We single out these types of connections by analogy with the classification of “forms of coordination” proposed by J. Kornai (see: Kornai J. Bureaucracy and the market // Questions of Economics. 1989. No. 12. P. 69-74).

See: Erokhina E.A. Theory of economic development: systemic self-organizational approach. Tomsk: Tomsk Publishing House. un-ta, 1999. S. 90.

For more details on reproductive dynamics, see: Orekhova E.A. Reproductive dynamics of the transitional economy. Saratov: Sarat Publishing House. un-ta, 2000.

See: Osipov Yu.M. Theory of economy: In 3 volumes. M.: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 1998. V. 3. S. 14-15, 139.

UDC 334.012.23

SPECIFICS OF INTERACTION OF FIRMS IN THE TRANSITION ECONOMY OF RUSSIA

E.V. Porezanova

Saratov State University, Department of Economic Theory and National Economics E-mail: [email protected]

The article reveals the types of interactions of firms in modern economy, factors that influence interactions, both general and specific, are analyzed. We study "hidden monopoly effects" in the economy on the example of dominant firms. The cooperative interactions of firms, the factors of their stability are considered, the main features of the Russian market model are highlighted.

Specificity of Interactions of Firms in Transitive Economy of Russia

In article reveal kinds of interactions of firms in modern economy, factors which influence on general and specific interactions. "The latent exclusive effects" in economy on an example of dominating firms are being investigated. Cooperative interactions of firms, factors of their stability are considered, the basic features of the Russian market model are allocated.

Interactions of firms represent a certain system of relations. Before analyzing the mechanism of interaction between firms in transition economy, it is necessary to investigate what the interactions of firms are and what their role and place are in the economic system of modern society.

The interaction of firms presupposes a certain system of micro-level relations, which includes relations: between existing sellers in the market, between sellers and buyers, between real and potential sellers. Interactions of firms are expressed in the establishment by firms market price, determining the volume of production and sales, in the qualitative characteristics of the product, as well as the amount of costs required to create barriers for competitors when they enter the market. Therefore, mutually

The actions of firms reflect the whole range of measures that allow the firm to influence both demand and supply.

The following types of interactions of firms can be distinguished. According to the degree of coherence of the strategies of firms in the market, competitive (inconsistent) interactions are distinguished, when firms compete with each other and to a greater extent pursue an independent policy in the market, and cooperative (agreed) interactions, when firms preliminarily agree on joint actions and act on the market as a “single front." Depending on the degree of institutionalization of intercompany relations, clearly defined interactions can be distinguished, when relations between firms are strictly and unambiguously defined, while the mechanism for ensuring the conscientious execution of contracts between partners is effectively operating. Such types of relations are characteristic of a developed market economy. At the same time, amorphous interactions are singled out, when relations between firms are based more on informal agreements than on institutionalized contracts, so that the degree of risk of moral damage and opportunistic behavior remains high. With amorphous interactions, the “gray”, semi-legal market becomes widespread. This type of relationship is characteristic of a transitional economy1.

The main factors influencing the interactions of firms in a transition economy are: the magnitude of transaction costs, the uncertainty of property rights, the fine line between financial and real transactions, as well as the concentration of buyers. Let's consider them in more detail.

After watching this video tutorial, everyone will be able to get an idea about the topic "Sectoral structure of the Russian economy." During the lesson, you will learn about the features of the natural and economic regions of the country where economic facilities are located, what are the reasons for such a distribution, how their location is related to the interests of management.

Economy (or economy)- this is the totality of all the riches that are created by nature and human activity and are aimed at meeting the needs of human society.

The main task of the economy is the maximum satisfaction of the needs of human society in food, goods and services. Any economy answers three basic questions:

1. What to produce? Those. what goods and services are needed.

2. How to produce? What technologies to use to produce these goods and services.

3. For whom to produce? How are produced goods and services distributed?

Geography answers the question: where are the main economic facilities that will produce goods and services located? At the same time, geography should take into account the peculiarities of production, the causes-factors that affect the location of this production, but also, of course, the peculiarities of the movement of these goods and services across the country.

economy is a structure consisting of a huge number of various elements.

The smallest "brick" of any economic structure is an enterprise or institution.

Company- an independent unit of the economy that performs certain functions

There are more than three million enterprises in Russia. But many of these enterprises produce similar products, so enterprises that produce homogeneous products that perform certain tasks in the country's economy are combined into larger groups called branches of the economy.

Branch of the economy is a set of enterprises that produce homogeneous products or services.

This is a branch of the economy that is engaged in the production of products to meet human needs.

All these enterprises produce very different products. All these industries use different raw material base and their own technologies. Their final product is very different from each other. But collectively they produce food products that satisfy people's needs. Therefore, all these productions are very different. They are combined into one branch of the economy - food industry.

The major sectors of the economy are industry, agriculture, transport, utilities, form the sectoral structure of the economy.

Rice. 1. Sectoral structure of the Russian economy

Sectoral structure of the economy is a set of industries that satisfy the homogeneous needs of society and form a single economy of the country.

The largest branch of the economy of our country is industry. It produces 31.5% of our country's gross domestic product. In turn, industry is subdivided into smaller branches, which can be combined into two large groups: heavy industry, light industry, and food industry.

In turn, the heavy, light and food industries are subdivided into smaller branches. For example, the fuel industry belongs to heavy industry. It is also divided into gas, oil, coal, etc. heavy industry is a group of industries that is engaged in the production of goods that are needed by other industries. Engaged in mining, production of electricity, metal and various machinery and equipment. Light and food industry are goods that are needed to meet the needs of people.

The sectoral structure of the economy is formed as the formation of human society takes place. In world statistics, it is customary to combine all sectors of the economy into groups called sectors. As the economy of any country has developed, sectors appear in its economy.

Primary sector of the economy- This is a group of industries that is engaged in the withdrawal of natural resources and then using them. The primary sector includes mining, agriculture, hunting and fishing. This is one of the oldest human activities.

To secondary sector of the economy include all industries that are associated with the processing of natural resources. We have already said that the economy produces metal and there is such an industry as metallurgy; various chemical products are produced, and this is done by the chemical industry; the power industry produces electricity. All these industries are branches of the secondary sector.

Tertiary sector This is not the production of material goods, but the provision of services. The tertiary sector includes transport, the service sector, hairdressers, theaters, and educational institutions.

Finally, at the end of the 20th - at the beginning of the 21st century, a quaternary sector, which includes science, finance, management. A sector that is primarily aimed at working with information, its receipt and processing.

At each stage of the development of human society, one of the sectors is the main, main, leading one. By the number of people employed in this sector and by the volume of products that it produces.

To date, historians and economists distinguish three stages that have passed in their development. human society: pre-industrial, industrial, post-industrial.

The first stage is pre-industrial (agrarian). The leading sphere of economic activity is the primary sphere. The main industry at this stage is agriculture. This type of economic structure has been preserved in some countries of the world to the present day. These are the most underdeveloped countries in Africa.

The second stage is industrial. The leading sector of the economy at this stage is industry. The primary realm is the secondary realm. This type of economy is typical for most modern countries. Such countries can be found in Europe, Asia, and Latin America. Vivid examples in this case are Ukraine and China.

The third stage is post-industrial. Some countries have moved to this stage. Such as some countries in Western Europe (such as Germany, USA, Japan). At this stage, the leading branch of the economy is non-production sphere or the service industry. The main sectors of the economy are tertiary or quaternary. And the main commodity is information.

Russia is in a transitional stage from the industrial to the post-industrial stage of its development. At the same time, we can say that the large size of our territory and a large number of different subjects of the federation, which are located on its territory, have different levels of economic development. There are territories on the territory of Russia, for example, such as Kalmykia, Tyva, or some regions of the Far North, where the primary sector remains the leading sector of the economy - the mining industry and. Urals, the Volga region, and, in general, and central Russia are examples of territories where the main type is industrial structure economy. And industry is the leading industry. Well, such big cities like Moscow, St. Petersburg, we can already assume that they have already entered the post-industrial era. That is why we say that Russia is just in the transition from industrial to post-industrial stages of its development.

How and why do changes occur in the sectoral structure of the economy? For quite a long time, this question was not clear to scientists and economists. In the 20-30s of the 20th century, the Russian scientist Nikolai Dmitrievich Kondratiev created a theory that was called the theory of large cycles. In this theory, N.D. Kondratiev substantiated the reasons that lead to the replacement of one type of management by another.

Rice. 2. N.D. Kondratiev

Rice. 3. Theory of large cycles (Kondratiev cycles)

Rice. 4. Graph of economic development

He singled out large Kondratiev cycles. Each such cycle has an upward and downward phase. During the increase, new industries appear, the development of new technologies. The economy is developing at a very fast pace, and there are new products and results of the economy. Gradually, economic growth slows down. Leading industries begin to gradually curtail production. Businesses are moving to other parts of the country. Crisis phenomena begin in the economy. But this is an impetus for all those discoveries and inventions that were made at the stage of economic development to be used and applied. This was the impetus for a new economic development. At the same time, new branches of the economy enter the economic arena, which contribute to its further development. N.D.Kondratiev believed that these economic cycles last about 50 years. He established, Fig. 4. The schedule of economic development, that the change of technological structures (or economic cycles) and is the cause of the changes that occur in branch economy any country, including Russia.

Branches of the economy interact with each other. And as a result, intersectoral complexes are formed in the economy.

Intersectoral complex- a set of industries that closely interact with each other and produce the same type of products.

For example, the fuel and energy complex. It consists of two branches: fuel and energy. In this case, the raw material for production is fuel, and the end result is energy. At the same time, fuel, coal, oil, gas are also energy resources. The structure of intersectoral complexes sometimes includes very different industries that belong to different sectors of the economy. For example, the agro-industrial complex. The basis of this complex is agriculture, which belongs to the primary sector. Transportation of agricultural products and everything that is needed to meet the needs of agriculture is carried out by transport, and this is already a tertiary sector of the economy. For the development of agriculture, mineral fertilizers, plant protection products and pesticides are needed. These products are produced by the chemical industry, a branch of the secondary sector. And finally, in order for agriculture to develop, science is needed that will train personnel, conduct scientific research, and these are industries that belong to the quaternary sector.

In the Russian economy, there are several intersectoral complexes. This is a fuel and energy, a complex of structural materials, a machine-building, agro-industrial and infrastructure complex.

V.P. Dronov, V.Ya. Rum Geography of Russia Population and economy Grade 9.

Wikipedia (). Kondratiev Nikolai Dmitrievich
Avmol51.narod.ru (). Kondratieff cycles
A single collection of digital educational resources (). Phases of the business cycle
A single collection of digital educational resources (). Functional and sectoral structure of the Russian economy