Economic development of the Russian empire from 1861 to 1914. Food exports of the Russian Empire in the XIX - early XX centuries

First of all, it should be noted that in the 80s. 19th century completed the industrial revolution.

The expansion of the country's transport network intensified the exchange of goods and the growth of small-scale production (especially in the textile industry, the center of which was the Moscow region). The aggravation of competition, the monopolization of production, the global economic crisis caused the death of many financially, organizationally and technically weak Russian enterprises (the crisis of 1900-1903 led to the closure of more than three thousand enterprises that employed 112 thousand workers). At the same time, within the framework of agricultural production (more than 4/5 of the population was employed in the country's agriculture; in 1905, the peasants of the European part of Russia owned 160 million acres and rented another 20-25 million, leaving only 40-50 million acres of arable land), handicraft, handicraft and fishing industries developed. For example, at the beginning of the 20th century in the Lake region (which included the Pskov, Novgorod and St. Petersburg provinces) there were 13-14 thousand factory workers and 29 thousand handicraftsmen. In the Central Russian Chernozem Region, 127 thousand people were employed in factories and factories, and there were 500 thousand handicraftsmen. In the Vyatka province, 180-190 thousand workers were involved in handicrafts. Artisans made a variety of crafts from wood, bark, fabric, leather, felt, clay and metal.

Russia's agriculture has also been capitalized, as evidenced by the growth of commercial entrepreneurship and the associated specialization of certain economic regions countries. This was facilitated by the rise in world prices for agricultural food products at the beginning of the 20th century. At the beginning of the XX century. the steppe provinces of the South and the Trans-Volga region were finally determined as areas for the production of grain for sale on the market, mainly on the external market. The northern, Baltic and central provinces became areas of cattle breeding and dairy farming. The northwestern provinces specialized in the production of flax, and the cultivation of sugar beet was concentrated in Ukraine and the Central Black Earth Zone. In the agricultural economy, the use of machinery, mineral fertilizers, and selective seeds grew. All these processes went in parallel with the sharp growth of the peasant population. In 1905, the tsar's manifesto announced a reduction by half from January 1, 1906, and a complete cessation from January 1, 1907, of redemption payments. At the same time, the Senate decreed the establishment of more preferential terms for issuing loans from the Peasants' Land Bank, in order to successfully help small-land peasants in expanding the purchase area of ​​their land ownership. The revolutionary explosion among the peasantry in the first Russian revolution was a reaction to unfair land management. By the beginning of the XX century. 2-3% of the peasant population were kulaks, 7-8% of wealthy peasants joined them; there were 25% of horseless farms, 10% had no cows farms. The basis of the village was the middle peasant, the main bearer of patriarchal traditions. The peasants wanted to take the land from the landowners and divide it among themselves. A surplus population appeared in the Russian countryside, the number of which at the beginning of the century was 23 million people. Part of it served as a reserve for Russian industry, but the possibilities of the latter were limited and this circumstance stimulated "peasant intervention". The head of government, P. A. Stolypin, was able to pass a decree that laid the foundation for agrarian reform (the creation of small personal land ownership). But Stolypin advocated the recognition of the inviolability of private property, against the forced expropriation of landowners' lands. Stolypin, speaking out against the agrarian programs of the radical left parties, prophetically warned: "...recognition of the nationalization of the land will lead to such a social upheaval, to such a shift in all values, to such a change in all social, legal and civil relations that history has not yet seen." By 1915, individual farms accounted for 10.3% of all peasant farms, occupying 8.8% of all allotment land. Of the 2.5 million households that separated from the community, 1.2 million sold their allotments and rushed to the cities and beyond the Urals. The government accelerated the mass resettlement of peasants, exempted them from paying taxes for a long time, exempted men from military service, endowed them with a plot of land (15 hectares for the head of the family and 45 hectares for the rest of the family) and a cash allowance (200 rubles per family). For three years (1907-1909), the number of immigrants amounted to 1 million 708 thousand. In total, from 1906 to 1914. million 40 thousand people moved to Siberia. The percentage of those who settled in the new place was very high, only 17% or 524 thousand people returned back. The resettlement had a progressive significance: the population of Siberia increased, the new settlers mastered more than 30 million acres of vacant land, built thousands of villages, and gave an overall impetus to the development of the productive forces of Siberia.

The agriculture of the resettlement areas was looking for the most acceptable ways of existence, including the formation of land relations in the resettlement areas proceeded in accordance with the program of P. A. Stolypin, along the path of creating strong individual farms based on credit cooperation, which then began to fulfill and sales and supply functions. The increased specialization of agricultural areas led to the formation of cooperative unions. Cooperative unions included peasant production in the system of not only the Russian, but also the world market. Siberian unions sold oil, furs, wool, wheat, bast, and hemp abroad. Export gave huge revenues to the treasury. Over time, such cooperation embraced European Russia. In 1912, the cooperative Moscow National Bank, which provided credit and supply to the peasantry through the cooperation of agricultural machinery, fertilizers, seeds. The Bank took over the cooperative activities of local cooperative unions. The next stage in the development of the cooperative movement took place during the First World War. As of January 1, 1917, there were 63 thousand people in Russia. various kinds cooperatives, which united 24 million people. Rural cooperatives served 94 million people, or 82.5% of the rural population.

Rapid economic development of Russia, modernization of production, expansion domestic market, growth purchasing power population, an increase in wages for workers, positive changes in the country's agriculture (increase in profitability) contributed to a new industrial boom (since 1909). The new rise was characterized by the intensive development of agricultural production, the further growth of cities, an increase in the level of technical equipment and power supply of industry, and an increase in military orders from the government. In 1909-1913. industrial production increased almost 1.5 times. During the pre-war industrial boom, the largest commercial bank countries remained National Bank, which expanded lending to trade, especially in the periphery. Great was his role in lending to the grain trade. The entry of Russian banks onto the path of financing industry marked the beginning of the merging of banking and industrial capital. During this period, the system and form of industry financing is changing: the role of the main investors is increasingly assigned to domestic rather than foreign banks.

Government reforms in the second half of the 19th century. and the beginning of the 20th century. contributed to the growth of the country's population. According to the 1897 census, the total population of the Russian Empire was 125.5 million people, in January 1915 it was 182 million people. Russia was the country with the highest population growth in Europe - 1.6% (Germany - 1.4%; England - 1.2; Belgium - 1.0; France - 0.12;).

In Russia, it has changed social structure population. First of all, the "old" commercial bourgeoisie, the merchant class, began to be washed away. At the end of the XX century. professional criteria for entry into merchant guilds were abolished. Merchants began to sign up for benefits. For example, Jews signed up as merchants of the 1st guild in order to obtain the right to reside outside the Pale of Settlement. Estate prestige led merchants to "flight to the nobility" by receiving the rank of general for great merits (for example, donating collections to museums or the Academy of Sciences; P.I. Shchukin, A.A. Titov, AABakhrushin became such generals). At the same time, a new bourgeoisie was being formed from among the directors and board members of joint-stock enterprises and banks. It was a narrow group of people closely connected economically and politically with the state apparatus (its most famous representatives are N. Avdakov, A. Vyshegradsky, A. Putilov, L. Davydov).

Moscow and the big provincial bourgeoisie (the Ryabushinskys, Morozovs, Mamontovs, Vogau, Knops and other "Old Russian" clans) had a different character. In the late XIX - early XX centuries. these millionaires began to turn their family firms into joint-stock companies (share partnerships with a very narrow circle of owners), claiming to be spokesmen for the common interests of Russian commercial and industrial circles. Some of the "Moscow" entrepreneurs, who had merchant roots, were closely associated with the Old Believers and inherited religious beliefs, gave the capital received from God a "charitable" direction in the form of support for art and education, clinics and hospitals.

Intensive capitalist development and the corresponding social shifts in Russia took place so quickly that they could not qualitatively change the mass consciousness. This applies especially to the Russian peasantry. Both entrepreneurs and shareholders or homeowners (representatives of the old nobility and bureaucracy) joined the capitalist elite. There were a lot of new owners and proprietary interests in Russia, but they did not yet have their own "worldview", a disinterested and superpersonal faith in the sanctity of the property principle. The peasantry, having entered into new economic relations, affected by the city, fell into confusion and spiritual split. It was not ready to face the outside world.

The local nobility also largely determined the political and economic face of Russia. Enormous funds were concentrated in the hands of the landowners in the form of landed property (over 4 trillion rubles in 1905). But by the beginning of the 20th century even large land ownership lost its purely noble character (in 1905, out of 27,833 large / over 500 acres of estates / nobles owned 18,102, or less than two-thirds). A third of the big landowners belonged to the bourgeoisie by origin. To an even greater extent, bourgeoisization embraced medium landownership (from 100 to 500 acres), which was most adapted to being transferred to capitalist lines. In this category, nobles owned 46% of the estates. Thus, the nobility gradually lost the privilege of monopoly ownership of land.

The process of loss of land by noble landowners was proceeding at a rapid pace. Their total number was 107,242 people, of which 33,205, or 31%, owned plots, the size of which did not exceed 20 acres, which brought their farms closer in size to peasant farms. 22,705 or 25.8% of nobles owned from 20 to 100 acres. Only 18,102, or 17%, large landowners owned 83% of all noble landownership, and 155 largest landowners - 36.6%.

The bulk of the noble landowners failed to adapt to the new conditions. As a rule, landlords' expenses exceeded their income. The lands were mortgaged and remortgaged, sold off. By 1915, almost 50 million acres of land worth over 4 billion rubles were pledged. Since January 1, 1905, the total area of ​​noble estates in European Russia decreased by 20%. The ruined landlords joined the ranks of officials and intellectuals. The noble elite was losing its economic importance.

After the abolition of serfdom, the Russian peasantry sharply increased its numbers. Only in rural areas European Russia from 1858 to 1897 the population grew by 50%. This army replenished the cities, spread beyond the Urals, mastering new geographical spaces. In the country at the beginning of the century, there were 363 thousand 200 beggars and vagrants, almost 14.5 thousand professional prostitutes, more than 96 thousand people were in prisons and other places of detention.

By 1917, there were up to 500 thousand officials in the country (under Nicholas I, Russia was ruled by 30 thousand officials). The maintenance of the administrative apparatus took 14% of the state budget (for comparison: in England - 3%, France - 5%. Italy and Germany - 7% each). According to the Ministry of Finance, the number of officials and officers who received salaries of more than 1 thousand rubles. per year, reached 91204 people. The higher bureaucracy was replenished at the expense of hereditary nobles. Officials, appreciating their professionalism and great connections, were willingly hired by private banks and joint-stock companies.

According to the 1897 census, the percentage of literate people averaged 22.9% across the country. In cities - 45.3%, in European Russia - 48.9%, in St. Petersburg - 62.6%, in Moscow - 56.3%.

There were 3,296 scientists and writers in the country (including 284 women), people of other creative professions - 18,254 (4,716 women), technical intelligentsia - 4,010 (4 women), medical workers of various specialties - 29,636 (including 10,391 women) .

At the beginning of the XX century. a group of the population called "intelligentsia" is singled out. The term "intelligentsia" was introduced by the writer P. D. Boborykin in the 60s. 19th century and has been used in several ways. In a broad sense, the intelligentsia included people engaged in complex, predominantly creative and intellectual labor- "educated class". In a narrow sense, the term was used as a political category.

Chistyakov Yury Fedorovich, candidate economic sciences, Art. Researcher, Sector for the Development of Agro-Food Systems and Marketing Research, Institute of Economics, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia

Food export of Russian Empire in the 19th – early 20th centuries and socio-economic development of the country: lessons for modern Russia

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The article discusses the main characteristics of the food and grain exports of the Russian Empire in the late XIX - early XX century in the context of the current position of Russia in the world grain market. The influence of Russian grain and food and grain exports on the level of food consumption in the country is analyzed.

JEL classification:

Russia has been actively interacting with the world food market for a long period. Currently, the country is a major importer of agricultural raw materials and foodstuffs. Also in recent decades, grain exports have been increasing. In the first years of the existence of an independent Russian Federation, grain exports were insignificant and amounted to several tens of thousands of tons. Changes began in 1994, when, after a long break, the volume of grain exports amounted to 1.6 million tons. In the subsequent period of the 1990s, the export of this product fluctuated between 0.7–3.4 million tons.

Analysis of Russian agricultural exports

Started in 2001 significant growth grain export. In 2002, it amounted to 13.5 million tons, in 2007 - 16.9 million tons. In 2009, the export of wheat grain alone amounted to 16.8 million tons. Russia exported 25.4 million tons. In the 2009/10 marketing year, Russia ranked 3rd-4th among world exporters, along with Canada. In 2012, the country ranked 7th (between Brazil and Canada). The average annual volumes of grain exports after 2002 also began to grow significantly (see Table 1).

In recent years, many experts predict a significant expansion of Russian exports of meat and dairy products.

Table 1.Average annual grain exports by Russia in 1992‑2013, thousand tons

Thus, Russia is currently turning into a major exporter of agricultural raw materials and foodstuffs. Russia occupied a similar position in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The experience of this particular period was presented by many perestroika and post-perestroika publicists and economists (E.T. Gaidar, Yu.D. Chernichenko, N.P. Shmelev, etc.) as an example for Russia.

In this regard, consideration of the historical experience of interaction between the economy of the Russian Empire and the world food market in the 19th - early 20th centuries is important in terms of its relevance for modern Russia.

During this period, Russian exports were dominated by agricultural products. As noted by the researcher of Russian foreign trade in the XIX - early XX centuries. S.R. Thompson, “in the field of foreign trade, such traditional goods as hemp, flax and lard retained their importance until the Crimean War, they accounted for about 1/3 of all Russian exports. However, the most remarkable change during this period was the growing export of grain from the country ... ". A steady growth in the country's grain exports began to be observed from the end of the 40s of the XIX century. This was due to a significant increase in the need for food in developed European countries due to population growth. From 1800 to 1900 the population of Europe (without Russia) increased from 147.8 million people. up to 287.6 million people or 94.6%, i.e. almost 2 times. For comparison: from 1700 to 1800. Europe's population increased by 46.5%. The urban population has grown significantly. In accordance with this, Russia's grain exports also grew. The country began to export the largest volumes of grain at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century (see Table 2)

Table 2.Average annual volumes of grain export by the Russian Empire in 1890-1913, thousand tons

During this period, Russia occupied leading positions in the world grain market. In 1893-97. the share of the country in the world trade in 4 leading grain crops (rye, barley, oats and corn) was 38.0%. In 1898-02. 28.3%, in 1908-1912 - 35.1%. In 1913, the share of Russia in the world trade in these grains was 22.1%, and the country ranked first in terms of grain exports, slightly ahead of Argentina (21.3% of world grain exports). For individual crops, a more complex picture was observed. In the period of the late 70s - early 80s of the XIX century, Russia exported 33.1% of the world export of wheat, 86.3% of the world export of rye, 63% of the world export of oats, 40% of barley. Subsequently, the share of Russian grain in world exports decreased for all crops, with the exception of barley. Russia exported in 1903-1914. 24.7% of world exports of wheat, 37.1% of rye, 42.3% of oats and 75.8% of barley. Thus, we see an average decrease in Russia's share in world wheat trade, a very large decrease in rye and oats, and a significant increase in the country's share in world barley exports.

An analysis of the opinions of contemporaries, economic and statistical data of that period, the works of pre-revolutionary and modern researchers, economists and historians, allows us to highlight the main features of the grain exports of the Russian Empire. The following features of Russian grain exports of the Russian Empire by 1914 can be distinguished:

- uneven, significant fluctuations in the volume of grain exports against the background of fluctuations in the amount of fees and grain yields, which are more significant than in other European countries;

– an increase in the share of cheaper fodder crops in exports, the quality of which was less demanding for consumers than for food grains, a drop in the share of food crops in Russian grain exports (especially rye);

- Russia's exports occupied a significant share of the world grain market. However, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Russia lost several key markets to its main competitors, the United States and Germany. First of all, these are the English wheat market (lost to the United States and a number of other American grain-producing countries) and the German rye market (Russia was ousted from this market by the German producers themselves). In addition, Russia yielded to Germany in the grain market of Finland and a number of its western provinces;

- the grain exported by Russia was of poor quality, it contained a significant amount of impurities, there were no uniform standards for grain varieties in the country (unlike the United States and a number of other countries);

– in Russia's grain exports, in contrast to the United States and Germany, the share of finished products (various types of flour) was very low (2–3%);

- Russian grain producers did not take into account the world market conditions when selling their products - forcing exports prevailed, producers sought to export the maximum volume of grain in a short time, which led to a fall in world grain prices;

- a significant role of foreign capital in the export grain industry in Russia and the dependence, lack of rights of Russian exporters in the world food market;

– poor development of the Russian transport and commercial infrastructure for grain and food exports (most of the Russian ports could not receive modern ships, low technical level port equipment, a small number of storage facilities and elevators in ports, an insufficient number of refrigerated cars, poor development of the Russian commercial fleet, etc.).

Pre-revolutionary export

Describing the main features of Russian grain exports in the pre-revolutionary period, the Russian economist P.I. Lyashchenko wrote: “Despite its high natural qualities, the best and most expensive buyers did not take Russian bread. American pure and high-grade grain of monotonously high standards, American strict organization of trade, aging in supply and prices, Russian exporters opposed grain contaminated (often with direct abuse), diversified, not corresponding to commercial samples, thrown onto the foreign market without any system and aging at the moments of the least favorable market conditions, often in the form of unsold goods and only on the way looking for a buyer. As a result, in his opinion, “the Russian exporter had to limit himself either to those markets where he had the natural advantages of geographical proximity, or to the markets of countries with which we were connected by financial and trade dependence, or to markets where Russian bread was sold cheaper than world prices” .

In general, regarding this period, we can talk about the dependent secondary position of Russian grain exports in the world food market, the dependence of this export on developed countries Europe and America.

Food exports of the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were not limited to grain supplies. The export of the country in the described period was of an agrarian nature - the export of agricultural products in 1909-1913. accounted for 89.5% of all Russian exports. In the same period, among the agricultural products exported by Russia, grain products accounted for 46.7% of all exports, products of intensive industrial crops - 7.5%, livestock products - 16.2%.

Grain occupied the first place in agricultural products exported by Russia. However, its share in exports during the study period changed significantly - 31% of the total export value of the country in 1846-50, 50% in 1871-1900. and 30% in 1911. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. the share of bread in the export of agricultural goods was decreasing. According to N.D. Kondratiev, in 1886-1890. the share of grain in agricultural exports was 65.4%, and in 1909-13. already 59.1%. During this time, the share of flax and hemp has decreased - from 14.4 to 9.2% and the share of dairy products has increased - from 0.7 to 5.8%. Large sources of foreign exchange earnings were the supply of flax, eggs and cow's butter. The share of grain in the total value of Russian exports was 41.4% in 1872, 48% in 1905 and 32.9% in 1913. Linen accounted for 13.1% of exports in 1872, 6.9% in 1905 and 6.2% in 1913. The share of egg exports was 0.3% in 1872, 5.7% in 1905 and 6.0% in 1913. The share of butter in the country's exports was 0.1% in 1872, 2.9% in 1905, and 4.7% in 1913. Along with grain, Russian exports of flax, butter, and eggs accounted for a significant portion of the world's exports of these products. The share of exports of eggs was especially high - Russian exports of these products accounted for 50% of world exports.

An important issue, relevant even for today, is the question of the impact of the country's food exports on the socio-economic development of the Russian Empire in that period.

As noted earlier, Russia at the time under review was one of the world's largest exporters of grain and a number of other types of food products. Meanwhile, agricultural production in Russia was developed incomparably weaker. According to such a qualitative indicator of the development of the country's agrarian sector as grain yield, Russia occupied the last places in Europe and significantly lagged behind such grain-producing countries as the USA and Canada. The average yield of the main grains in the country was more than 1.5 times lower than in the USA, and more than 2.3 times lower than in Canada. The productivity of a number of industrial crops exported by Russia was also low. Howeverexcluding corn, before the First World War, Russia ranked first among the largest grain-producing states in terms of gross yields of the most important grain crops, and also first in terms of sown area under food and fodder grains. Thus, the country's large grain exports were based on extensive rather than intensive factors - primarily on the presence of a large area of ​​land suitable for agriculture.

Statistics show that Russia had a larger share of exports in bread production than a number of other exporters. This is evidenced by comparative data on the export capacity (the ratio of production to export) of wheat in Russia and the USA in 1911-13. (see Table 3).

Table 3Export intensity of the main grain crops (grain and flour) of Russia and countries - the main world producers and exporters in 1911‑1913, % (source - calculated from: , )

An analysis of the indicators of the export intensity of cereals in Russia and the countries that are the main producers, exporters and its competitors in the world bread market shows that in terms of the total export intensity of the main grain crops in general, presented in Table. 3 countries are divided into two polar groups - on the one hand, developed countries - large consumers and exporters of grain, such as the United States and such a competitor of Russia in the grain market as Germany, whose share of exported grain is quite low, and, on the other hand, weakly countries developed at that time with not large population and favorable natural and climatic conditions, such as Argentina, Australia, where most of the grain produced was exported. Russian export intensity is between these extreme positions - more than that of Germany and the United States, and significantly less than that of Argentina and Australia. In terms of the total export capacity of the main grain crops, Russia is at the level of India with its large population and periodic "hunger strikes" and is somewhat inferior to Canada in this indicator (14.8 and 19.6%, respectively) (see Table 3).

Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, Russia exported a fairly large share of its production of a number of food (wheat) and fodder (barley) grains. The indicator of the export capacity of many grain crops in the country was higher than that of its main competitors in the world grain market - the USA and Germany.

The export intensity of some other agricultural products exported by the Russian Empire varied. The share of exports in the production of flax was high - in Russia this figure in 1911-1913. was 62.7%, which is almost 2 times more than that of Austria-Hungary, which was a major European producer and exporter of flax and hemp.

Own consumption

Russia in the XIX - early XX century. was major exporter agricultural products, however, what was the situation with the level of food consumption by the population of the country? In this regard, it is necessary to consider the question of the level of food consumption of the population of Russia in comparison with other countries and the degree to which the needs of the country's population for food products are met according to the norms of food consumption. First of all, here we are talking about the consumption of bread as the main source of food for the majority of the population and fodder.

As can be seen from the table, in terms of the volume of grain remaining after the deduction of sowing costs, Russia ranked third among the countries of Europe represented. However, after deducting the grain sent for export, in terms of the amount of grain remaining for food and fodder consumption of the population, Russia occupied the last place among these 6 countries.

Table 4The net balance of grain and potatoes, export-import and per capita consumption in some European countries at the end of the 19th century (poods / person per year) * (source - Nefedov S. A. Demographic and structural analysis of the socio-economic history of Russia. End of the 15th – beginning of the 20th century, Yekaterinburg: Publishing house of UGGU, 2005, p. 258)

Russia in the late XIX - early XX century. remained an agricultural country, but its industry was booming.

The impetus for the growth of production was the railway construction. It resumed in 1893. Net railways increased in 1895-1899. an average of more than 3 thousand km per year, in the next five years - more than 2 thousand km per year. The construction of the Great Siberian Railway (Trans-Siberian) was of great importance for the development of industry and agriculture. The construction of railways contributed to an increase in the production of metal, heavy engineering products, coal, timber and other materials.

Industries have grown at a particularly rapid pace. National economy associated with new types of fuel - coal and oil, the production of which increased by 3 times. On the whole, the output of heavy industry increased by 2.3 times. The pace of industrial growth in Russia was the highest in the world - up to 8.1% per year.

In spite of high rates development of industrial production, Russia lagged far behind the world powers in terms of qualitative indicators of the economy: production industrial products per capita, labor productivity, technical equipment of enterprises. In terms of socio-economic development, it was a moderately developed agro-industrial country with significant potential.

Russia at the beginning of the 20th century was a country with a diversified economy. Along with the latest capitalist production, a significant place in its economy was occupied by small-scale (handicraft, handicraft) and even subsistence farming.

The role of the state in the economy.

An important feature of Russia was the presence of a large public sector of the economy. Its core was state-owned factories that satisfied the military needs of the state. They belonged to the state and were financed by it. The only customer and buyer of their products was the state, and they were managed by government officials. At the beginning of the XX century. there were about 30 largest state-owned factories: Tula, Izhevsk, Sestroretsk, Obukhovsky, Izhorsky, etc. In addition, the state owned over 2/3 of the railway
networks, vast land and forest lands, postal and telegraph communications.

The role of the state in the Russian economy did not end there. The government influenced economic activity private enterprises: regulated prices; protecting Russian industry, introduced high customs duties; handed out government orders to private companies and firms; granted them loans through the State Bank.

foreign capital.

The state created favorable conditions for attracting foreign capital. An important role was played by the 1897 on the initiative of the Minister of Finance S.Yu. Witte monetary reform. She introduced the gold backing of the ruble, the free exchange of paper money for gold.

At the beginning of the XX century. foreign investment in the Russian economy accounted for almost 40% of all investment. Active attraction of foreign capital did not lead to the creation
foreign zones of influence, to the complete or even partial dependence of Russia on foreign companies and states. Foreign companies and banks did not pursue an independent economic policy, did not have the opportunity to influence political decisions. Coming to Russia, foreign capital merged with domestic capital, expanding the possibilities for including Russia in the world economic system.

The participation of foreign capital in the Russian economy also had its drawbacks: part of the profits, which could increase the national wealth of the country, expand investment, increase standard of living population went abroad.

Russian monopoly capitalism.

In 1900-1903 European countries were shaken by a powerful economic crisis. It also hit the Russian economy. Heavy industry suffered more than others, especially such
industries such as metallurgy, metalworking, engineering, oil production and refining. The crisis has caused the death of many enterprises that are weak financially, organizationally or technically. Over three years, over 3,000 enterprises were closed, employing 112,000 workers. These enterprises could not stand the competition. Railway construction has been significantly reduced.

The response of the capitalist economy to the crisis was the increased concentration of production and the creation of monopolies. Recall that when creating monopolies, the owners of individual enterprises agreed on production volumes, prices, markets for raw materials and other issues.
The forms of monopolies were different. Cartels, syndicates, trusts were created, and later concerns appeared.

Syndicates have become the main form of monopolies in Russia. They fought for complete subjugation of the leading branches of the economy. Thus, the Prodamet syndicate (1901), which at the time of its inception united 12 metallurgical plants in the south of Russia, in 1904 controlled the sale of 60%, and in 1912 - about 80% of the country's metallurgical products. Under the control of the syndicates "Produgol", "Prodvagon", "Gvozd" were the corresponding industries. The Nobel-Mazut cartel reigned supreme in the oil industry.

Monopolies also arose in the banking system. The five largest banks controlled almost half financial transactions in the country. Gradually, they began to crowd out foreign capital, becoming the main investors in domestic industry.

Agriculture.

By the beginning of the XX century. Russia ranked first in the world in terms of total agricultural production. It accounted for 50% of the world harvest of rye, about 20% of wheat and 25% of world grain exports. The production of sugar beet, flax, and industrial crops increased rapidly. The number and productivity of livestock increased.

There were successes, but they did not determine the situation in Russia's agriculture as a whole. Contemporaries spoke of the impoverishment of the center. In the provinces of Central Russia, semi-middle and poor peasant households predominated. They did not produce marketable (specially intended for sale) products. The fields were cultivated in the old ways - with a plow and a wooden harrow. Lack of livestock and money did not allow to apply enough fertilizer. The yield was low, if the peasants sold bread on the market, then to the detriment of their own nutrition. A catastrophic consequence was a massive famine in lean years. The peasants were convinced that the situation could change only when they received at their disposal part of the landlords' land, which was used extremely inefficiently.

More than 20 million peasant farms accounted for 130,000 landlord estates. According to experts, for the normal existence of a family of 6 people in the black earth zone, 10.5 acres were required. In fact, one peasant farm accounted for about 7 acres. The impoverishment of the center was supplemented by agrarian overpopulation - historians speak of 20 million "extra mouths" that were not used in the countryside. The situation was complicated by the preservation of the community. At the beginning of the XX century. 4/5 of the allotment peasant land was in communal use.

The community carried out a regular redistribution of land among its members, vigilantly watching to ensure that everyone got the land equally. Meanwhile, the population of the Russian Empire increased annually by 2.5 million people, mainly due to the peasantry. With the next redistribution in each peasant farm, there was less and less land left.

The shortcomings of communal land tenure became more and more obvious: the community, which saved the weak, hindered the activities of strong, economic peasants; it strove for relative equality, but prevented the rise general welfare villages.

So, Russia at the beginning of the XX century. in terms of economic development, it was a moderately developed agrarian-industrial country with a diversified economy. The priority was the task of modernizing agriculture.

In the 80-90s of the 19th century (just after the democratic reforms, the assassination of Alexander II and the launch of counter-reforms), the empire's economy experienced a period of growth. Capitalism began to take shape. Cities and villages began to affect modernization process carried out comprehensive reforms. The rapid economic development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century resulted, in particular, from these two decades.

In contact with

Early 20th century modernization

In the economy of our country in the initial period of the last century, the following were noted:

• development entrepreneurial activity;
• increase in capital (internal, external) included in the economy;
• an increase in the number of hired forces at enterprises of various types.

In just two decades, the empire turned from an agrarian into an agrarian-industrial state (still more than 80% of the population was involved in the agricultural sector).

This is the main feature of Russian modernization - its accelerated course. Russian capitalism developed at the highest rates.

The path that England has traveled for several centuries, Russia "ran" for several decades. According to the main indicators, the country was gradually catching up with such economic leaders as England, Germany, France and, taking a tight place in the 2nd echelon of modernization.

Attention! Political scientists, sociologists and economists distinguish the following echelons of economic modernization: the first (completion of the stage of formation of the capitalist system) - the British Empire, the United States of America, Germany, the French Republic; the second (states of developing capitalism) - the Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary, Japan; third (weak growth of capitalism) - states Latin America.

The cyclical nature of the economy

Our state, integrating into world economy, adopted its characteristic cyclicity (a feature of Russian modernization at the beginning of the century). Periods decline and rise economy of the first years of the century can be represented as follows (table):

The economy began to respond to all political processes taking place in the world: wars, revolutions, changes of governments and rulers.

monopoly capitalism

In the Russian economic system of the first decades of the 20th century (following other countries), monopoly capitalism began to take shape.

It was a special phenomenon, as a result of which the central white global conglomerate leading industry and banking associations.

These trends occurred around the world, but with different time intervals. Depending on the mentality of peoples, historically established cultural values, and so on.

Signs and features

The characteristics of monopoly capitalism are:

• formation of major industrial groups- monopolies;
• dominance of money export over commodity(opportunities to attract cheap labor, cheap raw materials in third world countries and colonies);
• economic redistribution (territorial division) of the world between the largest monopolies (Russian companies took an active part in this redistribution, which rather resembled political, colonial expansion);
• bitterness of colonial wars;
• the formation of imperialism.

Businessmen began to actively influence foreign policy defending their own commercial interests.

The Russian economy also had special characteristics of this type capitalist relations:

1. It was formed against the backdrop of the preservation of autocratic power and landlordism, class inequality and the absence of social rights.
2. The Russian Empire was a huge multinational power, where different regions and different peoples existed in different socio-economic conditions.
3. Capitalist monopolism was formed in a special order solely because the Russian Empire made the transition to the capitalist system later than a number of other European states.

Stages of formation

The formation of monopoly capitalism in the Russian state is divided into 3 main stages:

• 1880-90s - the appearance of first cartels who agreed on sales markets and prices;
• 1900-08 - the emergence of syndicates, banking monopolies, the beginning of the merging of industrial and banking capital;
• 1909-13 – formation of syndicates, financial capital.

Forms of monopolies

There were two main forms of monopolies in the economy of the Russian Empire:

• marketing - cartels and syndicates;
• production - trusts and concerns.

The fundamental differences between different forms of monopolies from each other and the periods of their formation in the Russian Empire are presented in the table:

Industry development

Russian industry of the early 20th century went through a period of transformation. new branches of production appeared, the achievements of technology and science began to be used.

Russian industry in this period of time was formed and developed with the active participation of foreign and state capital.

Agricultural development

Despite the accelerated pace of industrial development, Russia remained an agrarian country. But despite the fact that it was the leader in the export of agricultural products, the situation in this sector of the economy was quite difficult:

• grain specialization led to agrarian overpopulation and depletion of the lands of the South and South-East of Russia;
• in the main, the farms were low-power (this also applied to peasant and landowner farms);
• non-use of technology led to frequent crop failures and famine;
• in the countryside, semi-serfdom patriarchal remnants were preserved, modernization in this sector was very slow.

In addition, Russia is in the zone of “risk farming”. Due to climatic conditions (floods, drought, frosts), crop failures often occurred.

Important! During this period, the United States, Latin American countries and Australia began to compete in the world agricultural market of the Russian Empire.

Reforms of P. A. Stolypin

The reforms of P. A. Stolypin, carried out by him in 1906-1910, were aimed at accelerating the modernization processes in agriculture. For these reforms:

• peasants received the right to leave the community;
• peasants could get a loan from the Peasants' Bank for the development of the economy;
• the state provided assistance to peasants who wanted to move for.

All these measures led to the accelerated development agriculture and increase the profitability of agriculture, its marketability and

connections with, but they did not remove the social tension that existed in the Russian village.

The fact is that Stolypin did not dare to take the most important step - the elimination of landlord landownership, which would lead to land

redistribution and would solve the problem of small land of peasant farms. In this way, he would get rid of the strong class inequality and spur the economy.

Transport

In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century transport system has not undergone significant changes. The leading role in the transportation of goods and logistics was played by railways, as well as water communications (there were many private shipping companies in Russia). Highway roads there were very few. Equipped tracts were laid between the cities.

Financial system

The Russian financial system of the early 20th century was dominated by public and private capital:

The Russian financial system of the early 20th century was not in the best condition. First, the international crisis of 1900-1903 had a serious impact on it. Secondly, and the revolution of 1905-1907. actually emptied the Russian treasury. Thirdly, the constant appeal to foreign capital has led to an increase in public debt.

Reforms of S. Yu. Witte

The reforms of the Minister of the Interior S. Yu. Witte were an attempt stabilize financial system. He carried out a whole range of measures aimed at improving the economy:

• regulation of the tariff system;
• reorganization of the taxation system;
• state regulation of foreign and domestic trade (protectionism);
• revitalization of the State Bank and the monetary reform of 1897, aimed at strengthening national currency;
• fighting the budget deficit.

In general, the reforms were positive, but S. Yu. Witte was not allowed to complete them, blocking his agrarian program.

Features of economic development

Thus, the Russian economy of the early 20th century was characterized by (it was characterized by):

• a combination of a developed industrial and financial system with a backward agrarian one;
• the weakness of the bourgeoisie, which had just begun to take shape under conditions of social inequality;
• high concentration of foreign capital with low domestic exports.

Briefly about the Russian economy at the beginning of the 20th century

The development of the Russian economy in the 20th century

Conclusion

On the one hand, the Russian economy rapidly evolved and developed, on the other hand, autocracy, landlordism, remnants of serfdom and social inequality hampered modernization processes. But, in any case, during this period, the level of Russia's economic development has increased and its lagging behind the leading capitalist powers decreased significantly.

As a result of economic development in the post-reform period (especially the industrial boom of the 90s of the 19th century, which ended by 1880-1890), the system of Russian capitalism finally took shape. This was expressed in the growth of entrepreneurship and capital, the improvement of production, its technological re-equipment, and the increase in the number of hired labor in all spheres of the national economy. Simultaneously with other capitalist countries, the second technological revolution(acceleration of the production of means of production, widespread use of electricity and other achievements of modern science), which coincided with. From a backward agrarian country, Russia by the beginning of the 20th century. became an agrarian-industrial power (82% employed in agriculture). In terms of industrial output, it entered the top five countries (England, France, the USA and Germany) and was increasingly drawn into world system economy.
In modern science, there are three echelons of modernization:
1. Countries with a high level of development of capitalism (England, France, USA).
2. Countries with an average (Germany, Japan) and weak-average (Russia, Austria-Hungary) level of development of capitalism.
3. Countries of weak development of capitalism (countries of Latin America, Africa, Asia).
At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. capitalism has entered a new, monopolistic stage. Powerful industrial and financial associations (industrial monopolies and financial unions) were formed. Gradually there was a fusion of industrial and financial capital, industrial-financial groups took shape. They occupied a dominant position in the economy: they regulated the volume of production and sales, dictated prices, divided the world into spheres of influence. Their interests were increasingly subordinated to the domestic and foreign policy of the capitalist states. The system of monopoly capitalism, changing and adapting to new historical realities, persisted throughout the 20th century.
special character capitalism at the turn of the century was noted by many scientists and politicians, in particular the English economist John Hobson. According to his version (and also according to V.I. Lenin), characteristic features imperialism are:
1. Creation in the industry of large associations, enterprises - monopolies (to draw an analogy with modern TNCs - transnational corporations), dictating their own rules of the game in the market;
2. merger formation banking capital with the industrial of a new, more maneuverable and active type of capital, linking single system banks, enterprises, communications, services, - financial;
3. the export of capital to other countries begins to dominate over commodity exports, which allows you to get super profits through the exploitation of cheap labor, cheap raw materials and low land prices;
4. economic division of the world between unions of monopolies;
5. political, territorial division of the world between leading countries, colonial wars.
Monopolies are large economic associations that have concentrated in their hands most of the production and marketing of goods.
The process of formation of monopoly capitalism was also characteristic of Russia. It affected her economic, social and political life. Along with the manifestation of general patterns in Russia, there were some peculiarities of monopoly capitalism. This was due to a number of factors:
First, historical: it passed to capitalism later than many European countries;
secondly, economic and geographical: an immense territory with various natural conditions and its uneven development;
thirdly, socio-political: the preservation of autocracy, landlordism, class inequality, political lack of rights of the broad masses, national oppression;
fourthly, national: different level The economic and socio-cultural state of the numerous peoples of the empire also predetermined the originality of Russian monopoly capitalism.
There are four stages in the process of monopolization in Russia:
1880-1890s - the emergence of the first cartels on the basis of temporary agreements on joint prices and the division of sales markets, the strengthening of banks;
1900-1908 - creation of large syndicates, banking monopolies, concentration of banks;
1909-1913 - Creation of “vertical” syndicates, uniting enterprises for the purchase of raw materials, for their production and marketing; the emergence of trusts and concerns; coalescence of industrial "banking capital, the creation of financial capital;
1913-1917 - the emergence of state-monopoly capitalism; merging of financial capital, monopolies with the state apparatus.
Russia is usually attributed to the second echelon of modernization. There are different points of view of researchers on the question of the level of development of capitalism in Russia - medium or weak-medium. In addition, along with the opinion about the “catching up” nature of Russian modernization (formational approach), there is an opinion about the special path of Russia's development, about the uselessness and futility of the race for the leader (civilizational approach).
Peculiarities:
1. In Russia, railway construction unfolded before the industrial revolution, being a powerful incentive, on the one hand, industrial development country, on the other - the capitalist evolution of the entire national economy.
2. The system of Russian factory production in many industries developed without going through the previous stages - crafts and manufactory.
3. In a different sequence, the design took place in Russia credit system. By the beginning of the XX century. this system was represented primarily by large and largest joint-stock commercial banks, and the rapid growth of medium and small credit institutions occurred only at the time of the pre-war industrial boom.
4. There has been a rapid growth of various forms economic organization production - small-scale private capitalist, joint-stock, state-capitalist, monopoly, and then state-monopoly.
5. Russia was characterized not by the export, but by the import of capital.
6. A high degree of concentration of production and labor has been created.
7. An important feature of the capitalist evolution of Russia was that the autocratic state played a huge role in economic life, in the formation of the basic elements of new relations.
State intervention in economic life expressed:
· in the creation of state-owned factories (military production), which were excluded from the sphere of free competition;
· in state control for railway transport and the construction of new roads (2/3 of the railway network belonged to the state);
the fact that the state owned a significant part of the land;
· the existence of a significant public sector in the economy;
in the establishment of protectionist tariffs by the state, the provision of state loans and orders;
in the creation by the state of conditions for attracting foreign investment(in 1897, a monetary reform was carried out (Witte), which eliminated bimetallism and established the gold backing of the ruble, its convertibility).
The state actively patronized the development of domestic industry, banking, transport, and communications. Significant foreign investment began to flow into the country. But the following factors negatively affected the development of the Russian economy:
- the multistructural nature of the economy - along with the private capitalist, monopolistic and state-monopoly, small-scale (handicraft industry), semi-serfdom and natural-patriarchal (community) structures were preserved;
- uneven and deep disproportions in the development of individual industries;
- dependence on foreign grain markets and foreign investment, as a result of which Russia had a hard time going through the crises of 1898-1904 and 1907-1910;
- a combination of high rates of economic development with low labor productivity (2-3 times lower than in Europe), a lag in production per capita and technical equipment of labor;
- the Russian bourgeoisie did not have access to power and was not free to make decisions, it never left the class framework of the guild merchants;
- the presence of powerful bureaucratic capital, which was a huge state economy - colossal land and forest funds, mines and metallurgical plants in the Urals, Altai, Siberia, military factories, railways, a state bank, communications enterprises that belonged to the treasury and were not managed by bourgeois, but by feudal-bureaucratic methods.

Industry
Russia was characterized by cyclicity:
Crisis of 1900-1903 - fall in prices, reduction in production, mass unemployment.
1901 - steam locomotive building syndicate "Prodparovoz".
1902 - Syndicates "Prodamet" and "Pipe Sale".
1904-1908 - decline in industrial production (depression).
Since 1909, an industrial boom associated with the growth of military orders, the extensive investment of financial (including foreign) funds. The share of domestic products in the world market has almost doubled.
2nd place in the world - oil production.
4th place - mechanical engineering.
5th - mining of coal, iron ore, steel smelting.
At the same time, Russia ranked 15th in the world in terms of electricity production, and some industries (automobile and aircraft construction) did not exist at all. In the production of industrial goods per capita, Russia lagged behind the leading capitalist countries by 5-10 times.
Agriculture
Despite the accelerated development of industry, the agricultural sector remained the leader in terms of share in the country's economy. 82% of its population was employed in this industry. It ranked first in the world in terms of production: it accounted for 50% of the world's rye harvest, 25% of the world's wheat exports. Agriculture features:
- grain specialization of agriculture, which led to agrarian overpopulation and land depletion;
- dependence on grain prices in the foreign market in the face of increased competition from the United States, Argentina, Australia;
- the low capacity of the bulk of peasant farms, an increase in production was noted only in the landowners' farms and the farms of wealthy peasants (no more than 15-20% of all peasants);
- the location of Russia - the "zone of risky agriculture", which, with low agricultural technology, led to chronic crop failures and famine;
- Preservation of semi-serfdom and patriarchal survivals in the countryside. The agricultural sector was included in the modernization process only partially. It was the problems of agriculture that became the main core of the economic, social and political life of the country at the beginning of the century.
Thus, Russia has embarked on the path of modernization lagging behind Western Europe. The contradictions in the development of the Russian economy were connected precisely with the insufficiency of drawing its individual sectors into modernization. Autocracy and the political dominance of the nobility were a serious brake on the path of economic development.
Finance
Under the conditions of monopoly capitalism, the financial system of Russia was determined by the state and private forms of banking capital. The main place was occupied by the State Bank, which carried out two central functions- emission and credit. He provided support to banking monopolies, was engaged in state lending to industry and trade. The Noble Land and Peasant Land State Banks contributed to the strengthening of capitalist relations in agriculture. However, its credit policy they supported landlordism.
A significant role was played by the system of joint-stock commercial banks, which took an active part in the development of the credit system.
In Russia there was a concentration and centralization of capital by large joint-stock banks(Russian-Asian, St. Petersburg international, Russian for foreign trade, Azov-Don). They combined 47% of all assets. On their basis, a financial oligarchy was formed, closely connected with the bureaucracy and the big nobility. It penetrated into all spheres of the economy, had a strong influence on the socio-political life of the country.
At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. the state financial system was in a difficult position. Neither the establishment of a wine monopoly in 1895, nor the implementation of a monetary reform in 1897 helped. the state budget an unbearable burden fell on the costs of maintaining the bureaucratic and police apparatus, a huge army, conducting an aggressive foreign policy, and suppressing popular uprisings.
Strong blow to public finance caused the crisis of 1900-1903. The government treasury was actually devastated by attempts to rescue unprofitable industrial enterprises and support the crumbling banking system. After the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. and revolutions of 1905-1907. state debt Russia reached 4 billion rubles. The government tried to reduce the budget deficit by increasing direct and indirect taxes, reducing spending on economic, military and cultural reforms. Major government foreign loans temporarily supported the financial system, but annual payments on them on the eve of the First World War reached a huge figure of 405 million rubles.
Transport
Unlike other sectors of the national economy, the transport system at the beginning of the 20th century. has not undergone significant changes. Rail transport occupied a leading position in the domestic transportation of goods and passengers. However, the extensive state construction of railways was curtailed due to lack of funds. Attempts to organize private railway construction did not give positive results. In terms of the overall provision of rail tracks, Russia lagged far behind the countries of Western Europe and the USA. The vast territory was not easy to cover with an extensive railway network. Construction in the 80s of the XIX century. railway in Central Asia (from Krasnovodsk to Samarkand) and the Great Siberian Railway (from Chelyabinsk to Vladivostok) in 1891-1905. was a significant step in solving this transport problem.
Waterways continued to play an important role. The river fleet of Russia outnumbered the flotillas of other countries in its numbers and was well equipped. Own merchant marine fleet was small. The bulk of Russian cargo was transported by foreign ships.
The road network has increased very little. Russia remained a country of highways and country roads, where horse-drawn carriage prevailed. The car at that time was a luxury item for the privileged classes.
In general, for the Russian economy at the beginning of the 20th century. characterized by the coincidence of the processes of industrialization and monopolization. Economic policy government aimed at accelerated industrial development and was protectionist. In many respects, the state took the initiative in the development of capitalist relations, using the methods of economic recovery tested in other countries. At the beginning of the XX century. the gap between Russia and the leading capitalist powers was significantly reduced, its economic independence and the possibility of pursuing an active foreign policy were ensured. Russia has become a medium-developed capitalist country. Its progress was based on the powerful dynamics of economic development, which created a huge potential for further forward movement. It was interrupted by the First World War.
Reforms S.Yu. Witte
He had a significant influence on the domestic and foreign policy of the Russian government, actively contributed to the development of Russian capitalism and tried to combine this process with the strengthening of the monarchy. Witte made extensive use of scientific and statistical data in his work. On his initiative, major economic events were carried out.
Under Witte, state intervention in the economy significantly expanded: in addition to customs and tariff activities in the field of foreign trade and legal support for entrepreneurial activity, the state supported certain groups of entrepreneurs (primarily those associated with the highest government circles), softened conflicts between them; supported some areas of industry (mining and metallurgical industry, distillation, railway construction), and also actively developed the state economy. Special attention Witte gave personnel policy: issued a circular on the recruitment of persons with higher education, sought the right to recruit personnel by experience practical work. The management of industry and trade was entrusted to V.I. Kovalevsky.
In general, on the initiative of Witte, major economic measures were carried out:
Strengthening the role of the state in the economy:
Introduction uniform tariffs on the railways;
· state regulation of domestic and foreign trade through the first system of taxes;
· the concentration of most of the railways in the hands of the state;
· Expansion of the public sector in industry;
revitalization of the activities of the State Bank;
introduction of a state monopoly on the sale of alcohol;
Strengthening private enterprise:
flexible tax law;
fight against the budget deficit;
· strengthening of the national currency (the monetary reform of 1897 abolished bimetallism and introduced the gold equivalent of the ruble);
moderate protectionism against foreign investors.
Witte proposed a number of measures aimed at the destruction of the community and the transformation of the peasant into the owner of the land, as well as at improving the situation of the workers. Witte's program did not find proper support in the tsar's inner circle.
Despite the far from complete implementation of his plans, Witte did a lot to turn Russia into a industrial country. Under him, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, the CER was started, finances were significantly strengthened, and the budget deficit was reduced. The authorities did not have enough foresight to follow the path of reforms "from above" and carry out the political modernization of the country. The next attempt to change the face of Russia was made "from below", during the revolution of 1905-1907.
Taxes and duties of the peoples of Siberia at the beginning of the 20th century
The uneven distribution of taxes and taxes, their high amounts gave rise to persistent and numerous arrears, noted among all categories of indigenous people. For 5 years (1895-1900), the settled foreigners of the Yenisei province had an average of 62% of arrears for state zemstvo duties, and 71.4% for private zemstvo duties. Among nomadic foreigners, these figures were 19.5 and 32.8%, respectively. The discrepancy between the size of taxes and the level of solvency of the rural aboriginal population gave rise to arrears in other types of tax payments. Sources note chronic arrears in the payment of poll and quitrent taxes - the main type of taxation of settled aborigines. In the Yenisei province, arrears in per capita taxes amounted to 15.7%, quitrent - 7.5%. A certain reduction in salary arrears, which is noticed from time to time, is by no means explained by an increase in the solvency of the natives, but by the shameless extortion of them by the tsarist authorities, especially when collecting local taxes. At the same time, the confiscation of property and its sale at auction, the arrest of the ancestors and village foremen, and other forms of administrative coercion, up to the sending of military teams, were widely practiced. But, despite these measures, arrears constantly increased. In the Tobolsk province, for example, after the transfer of part of the nomads to the category of settled, the tax system fell even more heavily on foreigners. In 1891, arrears were estimated at 87,566 rubles, which was 140% of the annual salary. In 1901 - already 98,023 rubles. In the Yakutsk region in 1892, arrears in zemstvo payments amounted to 187,664 rubles. By 1900, thanks to the efforts of the administration, their amount was reduced to 116,589 rubles, but further collection of arrears remained problematic for the local administration.
As a result, we note that in the period under review, taxes and duties of the indigenous population of Siberia were of a mixed nature in form and content. In the total taxation of the peoples of the region, the share of local and personal duties accounted for at least 50% of cash payments. The taxes and duties of the settled aborigines in practice did not differ in any way from the tax obligations of the Russian peasantry. However, the most characteristic form of tax duties for nomadic and wandering foreigners - the absolute majority of the indigenous population - was yasak.

This text is an unedited version of the transcript, which will be edited later.

Story. Grade 9

Topic 1. Russia in 1900-1916

Lesson 2 Economic development Russia at the beginning of the 20th century

Kobba D.V., Ph.D., teacher of Gymnasium 1579

Economic development of Russia - Agriculture, Witte's monetary reform, monopoly capitalism in the post-reform period

The topic of our today's lesson is “Economic development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century”, the monetary reform of Witte S.Yu., capitalism at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the monopolization of Russia, the Russian industry at the beginning of the 20th century and the economic development of Russia in the post-reform period. The unsuccessful, if not worse, Crimean War revealed the perniciousness of Russia's economic backwardness from the developed capitalist countries of Western Europe. The reforms of Alexander II, which followed it, spurred the entrepreneurial activity of the Russian state, but the real impetus to economic growth was the beginning of the construction of the railway network in 1893. From 1895 to next years it was not lower than 2000 kilometers per year. Such rapid construction, of course, dragged other industries along with it. The most striking event in the construction of railways in Russia during this period of time was the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway.

The growth of industrial production during this period in Russia was the highest in the world: 8.1 percent - no developed capitalist country had such indicators. At the same time, Russia lagged far behind the leading capitalist powers in terms of key indicators, as labor productivity, social guarantees, and a number of other economic indicators.

An essential feature of the Russian economic system of that period of time is the presence of a significant public sector. The so-called state-owned enterprises, engaged in the production of exclusively military products, such as the Obukhov Plant, the Tula Plant, the Sestroretsky Plant, had exceptional competitive advantages over other manufacturers. In addition, the state lobbied for the interests of a number of large enterprises and entrepreneurs, or placed their orders with private enterprises close to the government or any ruling circles.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, foreign capital began to actively penetrate the Russian economy. At the same time, there is even some specificity in the allocation of capital by investor countries. So, in particular, French capital, as a rule, was placed in banks, and in total, the French placed up to two billion gold francs in Russia before the First World War. German capital, as a rule, was machine-building: the Germans built industrial enterprises here, and many of these enterprises are still operating. British capital, as a rule, was placed in the mining industry, primarily coal and oil.

At the same time, the main forms of capitalist enterprises, such as the cartel, trust, and syndicate, began to take shape in Russia. By the way, don't forget to look up what these terms mean. However, the main form of monopoly in Russia was a syndicate, that is, an agreement on the joint sale of goods. In Russia, such large monopoly enterprises as Prodomet, Prodvagon, Prodsakhar, Gvozd or the Nobel syndicate were organized.

Let's summarize. We see that capitalist relations are developing in Russia, but at the same time, Russian capitalism had significant specifics. The first is the significant share of the state in the Russian economy. Well, the second is the active development of monopolistic forms of management, which were convenient for the autocracy.